IESD FOUNDATIONS PAPER
How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns with
Research on Effective Reading Instruction
April 2021
A Summary of Independent Research
Prepared by Interactive Educational Systems Design, Inc. for Imagine Learning
33 W 87 Street NY • NY 10024 212 • 769 • 1715 631 • 691 • 2513 FAX 212 • 769 • 0909
How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns with
Research on Effective Reading Instruction
April 2021
A Summary of Independent Research
Prepared by Interactive Educational Systems Design, Inc. for Imagine Learning
33 W 87 Street NY • NY 10024 212 • 769 • 1715 631 • 691 • 2513 FAX 212 • 769 • 0909
1How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
IntroductionResearch consistently shows that the ability to read is the linchpin to academic success (Lesnick et al., 2010)
and economic attainment (Watts, 2020). Data indicate that “students who cannot read proficiently by third grade
are four times less likely to graduate high school than proficient readers” (Feister, 2013, p. 5). Other studies
confirm that reading performance is one of the best predictors of college success and future earnings (Chetty
et al., 2010). Research shows that higher levels of literacy are associated with less poverty, lower mortality
rates, stronger economies, more community involvement, and better health outcomes (International Literacy
Association, 2015). Notwithstanding the critical importance of reading proficiency in the lives of students,
most U.S. students lack the literacy skills they need to succeed. According to the 2019 National Assessment
of Education Progress (NAEP), only 35 percent of U.S. fourth-grade students and 34 percent of eighth-grade
students are proficient in reading (NAEP, 2019).
Research confirms that robust reading comprehension ability results only when both language comprehension
and word recognition (decoding) skills are strong (Gough & Tunmer, 1986; Scarborough, 2001; Catts et al.,
2005). While decades of research on the science of reading stress the importance of teaching phonemic
awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and reading comprehension strategies (Castles et al., 2018; National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development [NICHD], 2000; Snow, 2002), oral language instruction is
often minimized (Foorman et al., 2020). This is problematic, because oral language development is highly
predictive of comprehension skills in grades K–10 (Foorman et al., 2015; Foorman et al., 2016).
Educators recognize the importance of providing targeted interventions to ensure students learn to read. The
challenge, however, is that students’ needs often vary dramatically. While some students may require explicit
instruction in word recognition skills, others may need to focus on building background knowledge, developing
vocabulary, or mastering comprehension strategies. To address this challenge, a growing number of schools are
turning to online and blended learning to teach critical reading skills. Research shows that blending technology
with teacher-led instruction can be particularly effective in improving academic achievement (Means et al., 2013).
This paper summarizes research and research-based recommendations for effective reading instruction, and
explains how Imagine Language & Literacy, a blended learning solution, aligns with the research.
IntroductionResearch consistently shows that the ability to read is the linchpin to academic success (Lesnick et al., 2010)
and economic attainment (Watts, 2020). Data indicate that “students who cannot read proficiently by third grade
are four times less likely to graduate high school than proficient readers” (Feister, 2013, p. 5). Other studies
confirm that reading performance is one of the best predictors of college success and future earnings (Chetty
et al., 2010). Research shows that higher levels of literacy are associated with less poverty, lower mortality
rates, stronger economies, more community involvement, and better health outcomes (International Literacy
Association, 2015). Notwithstanding the critical importance of reading proficiency in the lives of students,
most U.S. students lack the literacy skills they need to succeed. According to the 2019 National Assessment
of Education Progress (NAEP), only 35 percent of U.S. fourth-grade students and 34 percent of eighth-grade
students are proficient in reading (NAEP, 2019).
Research confirms that robust reading comprehension ability results only when both language comprehension
and word recognition (decoding) skills are strong (Gough & Tunmer, 1986; Scarborough, 2001; Catts et al.,
2005). While decades of research on the science of reading stress the importance of teaching phonemic
awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and reading comprehension strategies (Castles et al., 2018; National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development [NICHD], 2000; Snow, 2002), oral language instruction is
often minimized (Foorman et al., 2020). This is problematic, because oral language development is highly
predictive of comprehension skills in grades K–10 (Foorman et al., 2015; Foorman et al., 2016).
Educators recognize the importance of providing targeted interventions to ensure students learn to read. The
challenge, however, is that students’ needs often vary dramatically. While some students may require explicit
instruction in word recognition skills, others may need to focus on building background knowledge, developing
vocabulary, or mastering comprehension strategies. To address this challenge, a growing number of schools are
turning to online and blended learning to teach critical reading skills. Research shows that blending technology
with teacher-led instruction can be particularly effective in improving academic achievement (Means et al., 2013).
This paper summarizes research and research-based recommendations for effective reading instruction, and
explains how Imagine Language & Literacy, a blended learning solution, aligns with the research.
2How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Overview of Imagine Language & Literacy
Imagine Language & Literacy is an online adaptive learning solution that accelerates reading and language
proficiency for students in grades PreK–6. Designed to supplement core literacy instruction, Imagine Language
& Literacy provides instruction and practice in all the critical domains of literacy—phonemic awareness, phonics,
fluency, vocabulary, comprehension, and oral language development.
Imagine Language & Literacy delivers explicit, targeted instruction to each student through personalized learning
paths that continually adapt based on performance. After an initial placement test, ongoing predictive and evaluative
checkpoints ensure students are working in their zone of proximal development. Strategic scaffolding and support
further personalize the learning experience for striving readers and English learners.
Imagine Language & Literacy aligns with five well-established, research-based principles of effective interventions
that contribute to students’ reading achievement. The program:
1. Provides rigorous, explicit instruction that deepens and accelerates students’ foundational reading skills,
oral language development, fluency, and reading comprehension;
2. Offers multisensory instruction that meets the needs of diverse learners and engages and motivates all students;
3. Offers adaptive, differentiated instruction based on precise ongoing assessment, and provides educators with
relevant data and actionable insights for teaching and learning;
4. Integrates strategic scaffolding and formative feedback that makes instruction effective for a diverse array
of learners;
5. Integrates research-based guidance to meet the needs of English language learners.
Figure 1 provides a conceptual model of how the program is designed to facilitate learning. This theory of
change includes the inputs—critical resources that are needed (the Imagine Language & Literacy system and
related professional development, technology, and a school implementation plan) to successfully launch the
program. The model also documents the targeted classroom activities—the interactive online curriculum that
makes learning more accessible and engaging to students, along with teacher use of reports and actionable data
to empower them to uncover students’ strengths and weaknesses and further differentiate instruction. These
activities generate outputs that include data on student engagement, progress, and achievement, and teachers
are prepared to adjust instruction as needed. These outputs lead to short-term outcomes—increases in student
engagement and in language and literacy skill proficiency. Ultimately, these short-term outcomes lead to long-
term outcomes, such as improved reading comprehension, language development, and literacy achievement,
and increased student self-confidence.
Overview of Imagine Language & Literacy
Imagine Language & Literacy is an online adaptive learning solution that accelerates reading and language
proficiency for students in grades PreK–6. Designed to supplement core literacy instruction, Imagine Language
& Literacy provides instruction and practice in all the critical domains of literacy—phonemic awareness, phonics,
fluency, vocabulary, comprehension, and oral language development.
Imagine Language & Literacy delivers explicit, targeted instruction to each student through personalized learning
paths that continually adapt based on performance. After an initial placement test, ongoing predictive and evaluative
checkpoints ensure students are working in their zone of proximal development. Strategic scaffolding and support
further personalize the learning experience for striving readers and English learners.
Imagine Language & Literacy aligns with five well-established, research-based principles of effective interventions
that contribute to students’ reading achievement. The program:
1. Provides rigorous, explicit instruction that deepens and accelerates students’ foundational reading skills,
oral language development, fluency, and reading comprehension;
2. Offers multisensory instruction that meets the needs of diverse learners and engages and motivates all students;
3. Offers adaptive, differentiated instruction based on precise ongoing assessment, and provides educators with
relevant data and actionable insights for teaching and learning;
4. Integrates strategic scaffolding and formative feedback that makes instruction effective for a diverse array
of learners;
5. Integrates research-based guidance to meet the needs of English language learners.
Figure 1 provides a conceptual model of how the program is designed to facilitate learning. This theory of
change includes the inputs—critical resources that are needed (the Imagine Language & Literacy system and
related professional development, technology, and a school implementation plan) to successfully launch the
program. The model also documents the targeted classroom activities—the interactive online curriculum that
makes learning more accessible and engaging to students, along with teacher use of reports and actionable data
to empower them to uncover students’ strengths and weaknesses and further differentiate instruction. These
activities generate outputs that include data on student engagement, progress, and achievement, and teachers
are prepared to adjust instruction as needed. These outputs lead to short-term outcomes—increases in student
engagement and in language and literacy skill proficiency. Ultimately, these short-term outcomes lead to long-
term outcomes, such as improved reading comprehension, language development, and literacy achievement,
and increased student self-confidence.
3How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Figure 1. Imagine Language & Literacy Theory of Change
1. Program Inputs
Imagine Language & Literacy
• Explicit, adaptive instruction in foundational reading skills,
oral language development, and reading comprehension
• Multisensory instruction and game-based motivation system
• Informative feedback and intentional scaffolding that
support student learning
• Precise ongoing assessment and data that empower
teachers to monitor student progress and further
differentiate instruction
• Professional development and coaching
District
• Technology: networked computers or mobile
devices, headphones, and supporting hardware
and software
• School and district infrastructure to support
technology use
• Teacher-buy-in readiness to adopt technology
• School implementation plan
4. Short-Term Outcomes 5. Long-Term Outcomes
• Students exhibit increased engagement, as
measured by usage of and progress through
Imagine Language & Literacy
• Students increase language and literacy proficiency,
as demonstrated by performance on Imagine
Language & Literacy assessments
• Students increase reading comprehension, language
development, and academic discourse on nationally
normed or standardized assessments
• Students develop a growth mindset and increase
their self-confidence
Program
Inputs
Classroom
Activities Outputs Short-Term
Outcomes
Long-Term
Outcomes
2. Classroom Activities 3. Outputs
Student Outputs
• Student outcomes are tracked in Imagine
Language & Literacy data reports
Teacher Outputs
• Teachers feel prepared to implement Imagine
Language & Literacy
• Teachers build their understanding of individual
students’ strengths and weaknesses
Student Activities
• Students spend a minimum of 60 minutes a week in
the program.
Teacher Activities
• Teachers use actionable data to monitor student
progress, review concepts, and conference with students
• Teachers deliver small-group instruction offline through
scripted lesson plans
Figure 1. Imagine Language & Literacy Theory of Change
1. Program Inputs
Imagine Language & Literacy
• Explicit, adaptive instruction in foundational reading skills,
oral language development, and reading comprehension
• Multisensory instruction and game-based motivation system
• Informative feedback and intentional scaffolding that
support student learning
• Precise ongoing assessment and data that empower
teachers to monitor student progress and further
differentiate instruction
• Professional development and coaching
District
• Technology: networked computers or mobile
devices, headphones, and supporting hardware
and software
• School and district infrastructure to support
technology use
• Teacher-buy-in readiness to adopt technology
• School implementation plan
4. Short-Term Outcomes 5. Long-Term Outcomes
• Students exhibit increased engagement, as
measured by usage of and progress through
Imagine Language & Literacy
• Students increase language and literacy proficiency,
as demonstrated by performance on Imagine
Language & Literacy assessments
• Students increase reading comprehension, language
development, and academic discourse on nationally
normed or standardized assessments
• Students develop a growth mindset and increase
their self-confidence
Program
Inputs
Classroom
Activities Outputs Short-Term
Outcomes
Long-Term
Outcomes
2. Classroom Activities 3. Outputs
Student Outputs
• Student outcomes are tracked in Imagine
Language & Literacy data reports
Teacher Outputs
• Teachers feel prepared to implement Imagine
Language & Literacy
• Teachers build their understanding of individual
students’ strengths and weaknesses
Student Activities
• Students spend a minimum of 60 minutes a week in
the program.
Teacher Activities
• Teachers use actionable data to monitor student
progress, review concepts, and conference with students
• Teachers deliver small-group instruction offline through
scripted lesson plans
4How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Principle 1: Provide rigorous, explicit instruction
that deepens and accelerates students'
foundational reading skills, oral language
development, fluency, and reading comprehension.The goal of reading is to extract and construct meaning from a text. A reader needs “fluent execution and
coordination” of word recognition skills (phonological awareness, decoding, and sight word recognition) and
language comprehension skills (background knowledge, vocabulary knowledge, language structures, verbal
reasoning, and literacy knowledge) to make meaning from a text (Scarborough, 2001). Research shows that
word recognition skills and linguistic (i.e., oral language) comprehension abilities account for almost all the
variance in reading comprehension (Lonigan et al., 2018).
Phonological Awareness
Phonological awareness refers to the awareness of the “sound structure of language” (Schuele & Boudreau,
2008, p. 5). It is a general term that “encompasses awareness of individual words in sentences, syllables, and
onset-rime segments, as well as awareness of individual phonemes. Phonological awareness can also refer
to the awareness of segments of sounds in words” (Foorman et al., 2016, p. 41). A subset of phonological
awareness is phonemic awareness, an auditory process that includes “the ability to notice, think about, and
manipulate the individual phonemes in spoken words” and recognize that words are comprised of these
individual units of sound (Foorman et al., 2016, p. 41). Phonological awareness is important because it has
consistently been shown to predict subsequent word recognition, reading, and spelling performance, with
evidence of a causal relationship between phonological awareness and these literacy skills (Gillon, 2018).
According to research and expert opinion, effective phonological awareness instruction should:
• Be explicit: The National Reading Panel found that students who received explicit phonological
instruction made greater gains in phonemic awareness and reading skills than students who didn’t
receive explicit instruction (NICHD, 2000).
• Be systematic: Research shows that development of phonological awareness occurs in a series of
sequential, overlapping phases (Schuele & Boudreau, 2008). Instruction should teach students (1) that
sentences can be broken into words; (2) what syllables are and how to identify and manipulate them
within familiar words; (3) how to identify and generate rhyme; (4) how to match words with initial and
final sounds; (5) how to recognize onsets (initial consonants) and rimes (the vowel and any consonants
that follow the onset) and manipulate them to create new words; (6) how to blend sounds into words; (7)
how to segment words into sounds; and 8) how to manipulate phonemes (Foorman et al., 2016; Schuele
& Boudreau, 2008). Schuele and Boudreau note that “segmenting and blending are recognized as the
critical achievements” on the path to early literacy development (2008, p. 9).
• Teach letter-sound correspondence and incorporate word-building activities: Based on its review
of 17 experimental and quasi-experimental studies from 2000 to 2016, the What Works Clearinghouse
concluded that effective phonological awareness instruction should also teach students letter-sound
correspondence and use word-building activities to connect students’ knowledge of letter-sound
relationships with phonemic awareness (Foorman et al., 2016).
Principle 1: Provide rigorous, explicit instruction
that deepens and accelerates students'
foundational reading skills, oral language
development, fluency, and reading comprehension.The goal of reading is to extract and construct meaning from a text. A reader needs “fluent execution and
coordination” of word recognition skills (phonological awareness, decoding, and sight word recognition) and
language comprehension skills (background knowledge, vocabulary knowledge, language structures, verbal
reasoning, and literacy knowledge) to make meaning from a text (Scarborough, 2001). Research shows that
word recognition skills and linguistic (i.e., oral language) comprehension abilities account for almost all the
variance in reading comprehension (Lonigan et al., 2018).
Phonological Awareness
Phonological awareness refers to the awareness of the “sound structure of language” (Schuele & Boudreau,
2008, p. 5). It is a general term that “encompasses awareness of individual words in sentences, syllables, and
onset-rime segments, as well as awareness of individual phonemes. Phonological awareness can also refer
to the awareness of segments of sounds in words” (Foorman et al., 2016, p. 41). A subset of phonological
awareness is phonemic awareness, an auditory process that includes “the ability to notice, think about, and
manipulate the individual phonemes in spoken words” and recognize that words are comprised of these
individual units of sound (Foorman et al., 2016, p. 41). Phonological awareness is important because it has
consistently been shown to predict subsequent word recognition, reading, and spelling performance, with
evidence of a causal relationship between phonological awareness and these literacy skills (Gillon, 2018).
According to research and expert opinion, effective phonological awareness instruction should:
• Be explicit: The National Reading Panel found that students who received explicit phonological
instruction made greater gains in phonemic awareness and reading skills than students who didn’t
receive explicit instruction (NICHD, 2000).
• Be systematic: Research shows that development of phonological awareness occurs in a series of
sequential, overlapping phases (Schuele & Boudreau, 2008). Instruction should teach students (1) that
sentences can be broken into words; (2) what syllables are and how to identify and manipulate them
within familiar words; (3) how to identify and generate rhyme; (4) how to match words with initial and
final sounds; (5) how to recognize onsets (initial consonants) and rimes (the vowel and any consonants
that follow the onset) and manipulate them to create new words; (6) how to blend sounds into words; (7)
how to segment words into sounds; and 8) how to manipulate phonemes (Foorman et al., 2016; Schuele
& Boudreau, 2008). Schuele and Boudreau note that “segmenting and blending are recognized as the
critical achievements” on the path to early literacy development (2008, p. 9).
• Teach letter-sound correspondence and incorporate word-building activities: Based on its review
of 17 experimental and quasi-experimental studies from 2000 to 2016, the What Works Clearinghouse
concluded that effective phonological awareness instruction should also teach students letter-sound
correspondence and use word-building activities to connect students’ knowledge of letter-sound
relationships with phonemic awareness (Foorman et al., 2016).
5How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
• Provide opportunities for phoneme manipulation: Research has identified several types of phoneme
manipulation practices, including isolating or categorizing phonemes in words, segmenting words into
phonemes, blending phonemes to form words, adding phonemes to words, deleting phonemes from
words, and manipulating onsets and rimes (NICHD, 2000; Schuele & Boudreau, 2008). The National
Reading Panel found that focusing on one or two types of phoneme manipulation was more effective than
teaching several different types (NICHD, 2000).
• Be interactive: Literacy research experts recommend teaching students to play with sounds through
activities involving pictures, letter tiles, rhyming, and music to develop students’ awareness of the sounds
in language (Eccles et al., 2020; Foorman et al., 2016).
How Imagine Language & Literacy Provides Research-Based Instruction for Development of
Phonological Awareness
Imagine Language & Literacy provides explicit phonological awareness instruction through a
systematic progression of learning activities. From the very start of their experience with the program,
students in PreK–2 engage with interactive digital Read-Along books that read stories aloud, with each word
highlighted as it is spoken. This connects the early phonological awareness instruction to reading for meaning,
while also demonstrating that sentences are comprised of individual words. Instruction in phonological
awareness skills starts with teaching the meaning of syllables and practice counting, segmenting, and blending
syllables in words. Then, students learn about rhymes and practice hearing whether words rhyme, matching
words that rhyme, and generating rhymes. Next, students learn to identify initial and final sounds in words,
determine whether a word starts or ends with a target sound, and match words with the same initial or final
sound. Following this, they learn to recognize onsets—the initial consonant or consonant cluster of a word (e.g.,
/c/ in cat; /p/ in pin)—and rimes—the vowel and consonant sound combination that comes after the onset (e.g.,
/at/ in cat; /in/ in pin)—and how an onset and rime come together to make a word. Then, they practice blending
onsets and rimes. At the end of the phonological awareness progression, students learn to link letter-sound
correspondences with phonemes.
Imagine Language & Literacy introduces letter-sound correspondence early in the learning process
and then uses written letters and words to develop phonological skills. Students learn the letters of the
alphabet and their corresponding sounds, working with a few phonemes at a time and prioritizing consonant
and short vowel sounds represented by single letters, since these are used in phonological awareness practice
and appear frequently in words students will encounter in the early stages of reading. (For the full progression of
letter-sound correspondence instruction, see Phonics and Decoding, later in this paper.)
Students whose first language is not English are taught how sounds in English are like the sounds in
their first language, and they are introduced to new sounds in English that are not in their first language.
Language-specific support is provided in 15 languages (Spanish, Portuguese, French, Haitian Creole, Korean,
Vietnamese, Mandarin, Japanese, Arabic, Russian, Marshallese, Tagalog, Cantonese, Hmong, and Somali).
The program integrates written letters and words in all phases of phonological awareness instruction and
practice, including focusing on words in sentences, syllables in words, rhymes, initial and final sounds in words,
onsets and rimes, and phonemes.
Imagine Language & Literacy includes a variety of practice with phonemes. For example, students
practice identifying and naming the initial, final, and medial phonemes in words. Both on computer and off
computer, they practice blending single-phoneme onsets with their rimes. In another blending activity, the
program presents groups of phonemes and asks students to blend them together. In an off-computer activity,
students use letter cards (each representing a single phoneme) to form CVC (consonant, vowel, consonant)
words and practice blending the letter sounds to read each word aloud. Students also practice segmenting
words into phonemes, both on computer and in small groups.
• Provide opportunities for phoneme manipulation: Research has identified several types of phoneme
manipulation practices, including isolating or categorizing phonemes in words, segmenting words into
phonemes, blending phonemes to form words, adding phonemes to words, deleting phonemes from
words, and manipulating onsets and rimes (NICHD, 2000; Schuele & Boudreau, 2008). The National
Reading Panel found that focusing on one or two types of phoneme manipulation was more effective than
teaching several different types (NICHD, 2000).
• Be interactive: Literacy research experts recommend teaching students to play with sounds through
activities involving pictures, letter tiles, rhyming, and music to develop students’ awareness of the sounds
in language (Eccles et al., 2020; Foorman et al., 2016).
How Imagine Language & Literacy Provides Research-Based Instruction for Development of
Phonological Awareness
Imagine Language & Literacy provides explicit phonological awareness instruction through a
systematic progression of learning activities. From the very start of their experience with the program,
students in PreK–2 engage with interactive digital Read-Along books that read stories aloud, with each word
highlighted as it is spoken. This connects the early phonological awareness instruction to reading for meaning,
while also demonstrating that sentences are comprised of individual words. Instruction in phonological
awareness skills starts with teaching the meaning of syllables and practice counting, segmenting, and blending
syllables in words. Then, students learn about rhymes and practice hearing whether words rhyme, matching
words that rhyme, and generating rhymes. Next, students learn to identify initial and final sounds in words,
determine whether a word starts or ends with a target sound, and match words with the same initial or final
sound. Following this, they learn to recognize onsets—the initial consonant or consonant cluster of a word (e.g.,
/c/ in cat; /p/ in pin)—and rimes—the vowel and consonant sound combination that comes after the onset (e.g.,
/at/ in cat; /in/ in pin)—and how an onset and rime come together to make a word. Then, they practice blending
onsets and rimes. At the end of the phonological awareness progression, students learn to link letter-sound
correspondences with phonemes.
Imagine Language & Literacy introduces letter-sound correspondence early in the learning process
and then uses written letters and words to develop phonological skills. Students learn the letters of the
alphabet and their corresponding sounds, working with a few phonemes at a time and prioritizing consonant
and short vowel sounds represented by single letters, since these are used in phonological awareness practice
and appear frequently in words students will encounter in the early stages of reading. (For the full progression of
letter-sound correspondence instruction, see Phonics and Decoding, later in this paper.)
Students whose first language is not English are taught how sounds in English are like the sounds in
their first language, and they are introduced to new sounds in English that are not in their first language.
Language-specific support is provided in 15 languages (Spanish, Portuguese, French, Haitian Creole, Korean,
Vietnamese, Mandarin, Japanese, Arabic, Russian, Marshallese, Tagalog, Cantonese, Hmong, and Somali).
The program integrates written letters and words in all phases of phonological awareness instruction and
practice, including focusing on words in sentences, syllables in words, rhymes, initial and final sounds in words,
onsets and rimes, and phonemes.
Imagine Language & Literacy includes a variety of practice with phonemes. For example, students
practice identifying and naming the initial, final, and medial phonemes in words. Both on computer and off
computer, they practice blending single-phoneme onsets with their rimes. In another blending activity, the
program presents groups of phonemes and asks students to blend them together. In an off-computer activity,
students use letter cards (each representing a single phoneme) to form CVC (consonant, vowel, consonant)
words and practice blending the letter sounds to read each word aloud. Students also practice segmenting
words into phonemes, both on computer and in small groups.
6How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Imagine Language & Literacy engages students in phonological awareness activities that are highly
interactive. For example:
• In the Sound Train activity, students select pictures displayed on the cars of a train that match a given
initial sound.
• In Monster Blend, a forklift initially demonstrates how a word’s
onset and rime come together to make a word. The forklift pushes
the word parts for the onset and rime (s and un) together while
the student hears the separate sounds (/s/ and /un/) until the word
parts join, and sun is made and heard. Then, during Monster Blend
practice, students hear an onset and rime spoken (e.g., /p/ and /ot/),
and they are asked to blend the sounds (/pot/), select the picture
that matches the blended word (a picture of a pot), and drag it to a
hungry monster’s plate.
• In Sound Chase, students see a picture and hear the corresponding
word spoken (e.g., a picture of a bat and the word /bat/), then
segment the word into phonemes by clicking on the number of
sounds they hear.
• In Yakkity-Yak, students help Tak the Yak climb a mountain by
listening for a target phoneme in a one-syllable word. They segment
the word into phonemes, and then identify the target phoneme’s
position in the word. If they answer incorrectly, the word is stretch-blended, making the individual
phonemes more recognizable.
• The program presents songs on the computer, with the text appearing as the words are sung, to introduce
letter sounds and practice rhyming. Students are encouraged to sing along and record their session.
Students also practice phonological skills away from the computer in small-group or whole-class activities. For example:
• They practice blending onsets and rimes in a small-group lesson using puzzle cards. Students select an
onset and a rime card, practice saying the onset and rime separately, then move the cards together as
they say the blended word.
• Students say tongue twisters to build knowledge of phonemes through alliteration.
• Students also use Elkonin boxes and a small set of letter tiles (e.g., a, m, d, s, t, p) to build new words by
replacing one letter at a time. For example, starting with the model word pat, they take away the p and
replace it with s to make sat; then replace the t with p to make sap. Continuing this process, they make
tap, map, mad, and then sad. With each new word built, students are prompted to blend the sounds of the
letters to read the new word.
Monster Blend
Sound Chase
Imagine Language & Literacy engages students in phonological awareness activities that are highly
interactive. For example:
• In the Sound Train activity, students select pictures displayed on the cars of a train that match a given
initial sound.
• In Monster Blend, a forklift initially demonstrates how a word’s
onset and rime come together to make a word. The forklift pushes
the word parts for the onset and rime (s and un) together while
the student hears the separate sounds (/s/ and /un/) until the word
parts join, and sun is made and heard. Then, during Monster Blend
practice, students hear an onset and rime spoken (e.g., /p/ and /ot/),
and they are asked to blend the sounds (/pot/), select the picture
that matches the blended word (a picture of a pot), and drag it to a
hungry monster’s plate.
• In Sound Chase, students see a picture and hear the corresponding
word spoken (e.g., a picture of a bat and the word /bat/), then
segment the word into phonemes by clicking on the number of
sounds they hear.
• In Yakkity-Yak, students help Tak the Yak climb a mountain by
listening for a target phoneme in a one-syllable word. They segment
the word into phonemes, and then identify the target phoneme’s
position in the word. If they answer incorrectly, the word is stretch-blended, making the individual
phonemes more recognizable.
• The program presents songs on the computer, with the text appearing as the words are sung, to introduce
letter sounds and practice rhyming. Students are encouraged to sing along and record their session.
Students also practice phonological skills away from the computer in small-group or whole-class activities. For example:
• They practice blending onsets and rimes in a small-group lesson using puzzle cards. Students select an
onset and a rime card, practice saying the onset and rime separately, then move the cards together as
they say the blended word.
• Students say tongue twisters to build knowledge of phonemes through alliteration.
• Students also use Elkonin boxes and a small set of letter tiles (e.g., a, m, d, s, t, p) to build new words by
replacing one letter at a time. For example, starting with the model word pat, they take away the p and
replace it with s to make sat; then replace the t with p to make sap. Continuing this process, they make
tap, map, mad, and then sad. With each new word built, students are prompted to blend the sounds of the
letters to read the new word.
Monster Blend
Sound Chase
7How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Phonics and Decoding
The National Reading Panel defines phonics instruction as “a way of teaching reading that stresses the
acquisition of letter-sound correspondences and their use to read and spell words” (NICHD, 2000, pp. 2-89).
Because the English language uses letters to represent sounds in words, phonics instruction can unlock “a large
portion of the system of English orthography” (Mesmer & Griffith, 2005, p. 367). Decoding is more generally “the
ability to translate a word from print to speech,” which is most typically accomplished by “employing knowledge
of letter-sound relationships” and by “sounding out words” (Foorman et al., 2016, p. 38). However, decoding
also encompasses instantaneous recognition of high-frequency words, including those with irregular spellings
(Foorman et al., 2016; see also Adams, 1990).
According to research, effective phonics and decoding instruction should:
• Be explicit and systematic in teaching phonics: Research shows that explicit and systematic phonics
instruction provides significant benefits for students in kindergarten through sixth grade, especially for
children identified as at-risk for reading failure and students already experiencing difficulty learning to read.
Kindergartners and first-graders who were taught systematic phonics were better able to decode and spell,
and were better able to comprehend printed material. Older students who were taught phonics were better
able to decode, and students with disabilities showed gains in reading comprehension (NICHD, 2000).
The hallmark of systematic phonics instruction is direct teaching of a set of letter-sound relationships in a
clearly defined sequence. The set includes the major sound-spelling relationships of consonants, short and
long vowels, vowel and consonant digraphs, and blends (NICHD, 2000).
• Teach letter identification: Research shows that “fluent identification of letters facilitates word
recognition, which in turn facilitates reading comprehension” (Schumm, 2006, p. 36).
• Teach letter-sound correspondence, blending, and sound-spelling patterns: The What Works
Clearinghouse concluded that after letter-sound pairs have been introduced, effective phonics instruction
should teach students how to read words systematically from left to right by blending, chunking, and
sounding out letter sounds. They also recommended progressively teaching common sound-spelling
patterns (for example, begin by teaching consonant patterns and then progress to vowel patterns and
syllable-construction patterns) (Foorman et al., 2016).
• Teach word recognition: In her seminal work, Beginning to Read, Adams (1990) advises that automatic
word recognition is essential for understanding connected text, and this automaticity of word perception
“is afforded only through learning” (pp. 228-229). Based on its research review, the What Works
Clearinghouse recommends teaching high-frequency words with regular and irregular sound-spellings
“so that students can recognize them efficiently” (Foorman et al., 2016, p. 28). Word recognition occurs in
developmental stages, based on knowledge of the alphabetic principle, sound-symbol correspondences,
and the size of the child’s sight word vocabulary (Combs, 2012).
• Teach encoding: Encoding is the ability to determine the spelling of a word based on the sounds in
the word. Encoding instruction is not limited to teaching only spelling patterns and memorization skills.
According to Weiser and Mathes (2011), it includes “explicitly teaching beginning readers and spellers to
write words according to their phoneme-grapheme correspondences, to build words using manipulatives
... and to learn to manipulate phoneme-grapheme relationships to make new words” (p. 171). Their best-
evidence synthesis found that explicit encoding instruction improved students’ performance in “phonemic
awareness, spelling, decoding, fluency, comprehension, and writing” (p. 170).
Phonics and Decoding
The National Reading Panel defines phonics instruction as “a way of teaching reading that stresses the
acquisition of letter-sound correspondences and their use to read and spell words” (NICHD, 2000, pp. 2-89).
Because the English language uses letters to represent sounds in words, phonics instruction can unlock “a large
portion of the system of English orthography” (Mesmer & Griffith, 2005, p. 367). Decoding is more generally “the
ability to translate a word from print to speech,” which is most typically accomplished by “employing knowledge
of letter-sound relationships” and by “sounding out words” (Foorman et al., 2016, p. 38). However, decoding
also encompasses instantaneous recognition of high-frequency words, including those with irregular spellings
(Foorman et al., 2016; see also Adams, 1990).
According to research, effective phonics and decoding instruction should:
• Be explicit and systematic in teaching phonics: Research shows that explicit and systematic phonics
instruction provides significant benefits for students in kindergarten through sixth grade, especially for
children identified as at-risk for reading failure and students already experiencing difficulty learning to read.
Kindergartners and first-graders who were taught systematic phonics were better able to decode and spell,
and were better able to comprehend printed material. Older students who were taught phonics were better
able to decode, and students with disabilities showed gains in reading comprehension (NICHD, 2000).
The hallmark of systematic phonics instruction is direct teaching of a set of letter-sound relationships in a
clearly defined sequence. The set includes the major sound-spelling relationships of consonants, short and
long vowels, vowel and consonant digraphs, and blends (NICHD, 2000).
• Teach letter identification: Research shows that “fluent identification of letters facilitates word
recognition, which in turn facilitates reading comprehension” (Schumm, 2006, p. 36).
• Teach letter-sound correspondence, blending, and sound-spelling patterns: The What Works
Clearinghouse concluded that after letter-sound pairs have been introduced, effective phonics instruction
should teach students how to read words systematically from left to right by blending, chunking, and
sounding out letter sounds. They also recommended progressively teaching common sound-spelling
patterns (for example, begin by teaching consonant patterns and then progress to vowel patterns and
syllable-construction patterns) (Foorman et al., 2016).
• Teach word recognition: In her seminal work, Beginning to Read, Adams (1990) advises that automatic
word recognition is essential for understanding connected text, and this automaticity of word perception
“is afforded only through learning” (pp. 228-229). Based on its research review, the What Works
Clearinghouse recommends teaching high-frequency words with regular and irregular sound-spellings
“so that students can recognize them efficiently” (Foorman et al., 2016, p. 28). Word recognition occurs in
developmental stages, based on knowledge of the alphabetic principle, sound-symbol correspondences,
and the size of the child’s sight word vocabulary (Combs, 2012).
• Teach encoding: Encoding is the ability to determine the spelling of a word based on the sounds in
the word. Encoding instruction is not limited to teaching only spelling patterns and memorization skills.
According to Weiser and Mathes (2011), it includes “explicitly teaching beginning readers and spellers to
write words according to their phoneme-grapheme correspondences, to build words using manipulatives
... and to learn to manipulate phoneme-grapheme relationships to make new words” (p. 171). Their best-
evidence synthesis found that explicit encoding instruction improved students’ performance in “phonemic
awareness, spelling, decoding, fluency, comprehension, and writing” (p. 170).
8How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
• Provide application opportunities: Research supports giving students the opportunity to practice
previously taught sound-symbol correspondences and sound-spelling patterns “using word lists,
decodable sentences, short decodable texts, or texts that contain many examples of words spelled
with recently learned letter sounds or sound-spelling patterns” (Foorman et al., 2016, p. 28). Weiser
and Mathes (2011) note that “students practice acquired decoding skills when they blend sounds and
recognize words, when they orally or silently read lists of words or pseudowords, and when they read
connected text (e.g., sentences, paragraphs, stories, and books)” (p. 71). Copeland and Keefe (2017)
point out that struggling students need to have opportunities to apply word strategies and learn target
words in a variety of text formats, such as printed “books, digital texts, and handwritten letters” (p. 645).
How Imagine Language & Literacy Provides Research-Based Phonics and Decoding Instruction
Imagine Language & Literacy provides explicit and systematic phonics instruction that progresses from
letter identification to mastery of letter-sound relationships to blending to application of vowel-consonant sound-
spelling patterns and beyond.
Students are first introduced to letter names through engaging songs and activities. The program
teaches students capital letters, then lowercase letters. It presents letters in order of those frequently
encountered, beginning with high utility and moving to low utility. It carefully highlights the differences and key
features of the letters. Students have multiple opportunities to practice letter identification to foster mastery and
automaticity, in a mix of timed and untimed activities. For example:
• In Art With a Purpose, students color a letter, a word starting with the same letter, and a picture of the word.
• In Free the Aliens, students identify the correct alphabet letter to
free aliens trapped in a crater before time runs out. The speed of the
game adapts based on how the student performs.
• In Underwater Adventure, students gather underwater treasures by
clicking bubbles that contain the correct alphabet letter.
• In Recognize Letters, students identify the correct alphabet letter to
turn a caterpillar into a butterfly.
• In Sort Count, students sort capital and lowercase letters on
bouncing balls.
As students learn to identify letters and letter names, they practice writing
the letters using a mouse or directly onto a tablet. For example, in Letter
Shapes and Sounds, students see the uppercase and lowercase letter
F. They say the letter name, trace the letter shape, and hear a word that
starts with that letter. The letter is then associated with a fish that starts
with the same letter and sound.
Free the Aliens
Underwater Adventure
• Provide application opportunities: Research supports giving students the opportunity to practice
previously taught sound-symbol correspondences and sound-spelling patterns “using word lists,
decodable sentences, short decodable texts, or texts that contain many examples of words spelled
with recently learned letter sounds or sound-spelling patterns” (Foorman et al., 2016, p. 28). Weiser
and Mathes (2011) note that “students practice acquired decoding skills when they blend sounds and
recognize words, when they orally or silently read lists of words or pseudowords, and when they read
connected text (e.g., sentences, paragraphs, stories, and books)” (p. 71). Copeland and Keefe (2017)
point out that struggling students need to have opportunities to apply word strategies and learn target
words in a variety of text formats, such as printed “books, digital texts, and handwritten letters” (p. 645).
How Imagine Language & Literacy Provides Research-Based Phonics and Decoding Instruction
Imagine Language & Literacy provides explicit and systematic phonics instruction that progresses from
letter identification to mastery of letter-sound relationships to blending to application of vowel-consonant sound-
spelling patterns and beyond.
Students are first introduced to letter names through engaging songs and activities. The program
teaches students capital letters, then lowercase letters. It presents letters in order of those frequently
encountered, beginning with high utility and moving to low utility. It carefully highlights the differences and key
features of the letters. Students have multiple opportunities to practice letter identification to foster mastery and
automaticity, in a mix of timed and untimed activities. For example:
• In Art With a Purpose, students color a letter, a word starting with the same letter, and a picture of the word.
• In Free the Aliens, students identify the correct alphabet letter to
free aliens trapped in a crater before time runs out. The speed of the
game adapts based on how the student performs.
• In Underwater Adventure, students gather underwater treasures by
clicking bubbles that contain the correct alphabet letter.
• In Recognize Letters, students identify the correct alphabet letter to
turn a caterpillar into a butterfly.
• In Sort Count, students sort capital and lowercase letters on
bouncing balls.
As students learn to identify letters and letter names, they practice writing
the letters using a mouse or directly onto a tablet. For example, in Letter
Shapes and Sounds, students see the uppercase and lowercase letter
F. They say the letter name, trace the letter shape, and hear a word that
starts with that letter. The letter is then associated with a fish that starts
with the same letter and sound.
Free the Aliens
Underwater Adventure
9How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Older students who need additional practice with letter identification are provided with a different set of age-
appropriate activities. For example:
• In Alphabet Action, students see an uppercase and lowercase letter, say the letter name and sound, hear
words that start with and contain the letter, and then write the letter.
• In Alphabet Blackout, students click tiles on a board to identify the
alphabet letter they hear spoken. Each time students click the correct
tile, the tile turns black. Students try to turn the entire board black
before time runs out. Students then review any letters they missed.
• In Alphabet Quiz, students click on letters presented in a row to
identify the alphabet letter they hear spoken. Each time students
click the correct letter in the row, the row disappears. If students
click the wrong letter, the row turns a different color. Students then
review any letters they missed.
After introducing the letters of the alphabet, Imagine Language & Literacy teaches the 44 sounds
in the English language and the 70 most common ways to spell those sounds. The program offers a
clearly defined curriculum sequence of letter-sound relationships, starting with simple continuous sounds
that are easy to blend (/d/, /m/, /s/, /f/, /r/, /n/, and /l/), followed by short and long vowel sounds. Lessons are
sequentially ordered to begin with initial sounds, followed by ending sounds. After learning individual letter-
sound associations, students study silent consonants, blends, and diagraphs (ch-, kn-, ph-, sh-, th-, wh-, wr-,
-ch, -ck, -sh, -ss, -tch) before moving on to study vowel combinations (e.g., ee, ay, ai, oo, ue) and r-controlled
vowel combinations. As students learn letter-sound correspondences, they are shown a mouth model and are
encouraged to repeat the target sounds.
Phonics rules are taught through engaging videos and interactive activities that provide practice in the letter-
sound relationships students have learned. For example:
• In Presenting Vowels, students learn the short and long vowel sounds
by watching a video and listening to a song about each vowel letter,
along with words that include the vowel sound.
• In Making Music, students learn the sounds that specific letters or
letter combinations make. They then select a picture of a word that
begins with the sound to collect musical instruments and make a song.
• In Recognize Letter Sound, students associate a specific letter
sound with a letter or letter combination. They hear a letter sound,
select a character face, and then choose which mouth makes the
correct sound.
• In Vowel Drop, students practice associating vowels with their long
vowel sounds. Students hear a long vowel sound, then click on
falling wooden crates with words that include a long vowel sound.
When they click the correct word for the spoken long vowel sound,
a parachute opens at the top of the chair and the chair lands safely.
• In Vowel Explorer, students hear a word with a short or long vowel sound and see a corresponding picture, then
select the vowel that makes the vowel sound they heard.
Alphabet Blackout
Recognize Letter Sound
Vowel Drop
Older students who need additional practice with letter identification are provided with a different set of age-
appropriate activities. For example:
• In Alphabet Action, students see an uppercase and lowercase letter, say the letter name and sound, hear
words that start with and contain the letter, and then write the letter.
• In Alphabet Blackout, students click tiles on a board to identify the
alphabet letter they hear spoken. Each time students click the correct
tile, the tile turns black. Students try to turn the entire board black
before time runs out. Students then review any letters they missed.
• In Alphabet Quiz, students click on letters presented in a row to
identify the alphabet letter they hear spoken. Each time students
click the correct letter in the row, the row disappears. If students
click the wrong letter, the row turns a different color. Students then
review any letters they missed.
After introducing the letters of the alphabet, Imagine Language & Literacy teaches the 44 sounds
in the English language and the 70 most common ways to spell those sounds. The program offers a
clearly defined curriculum sequence of letter-sound relationships, starting with simple continuous sounds
that are easy to blend (/d/, /m/, /s/, /f/, /r/, /n/, and /l/), followed by short and long vowel sounds. Lessons are
sequentially ordered to begin with initial sounds, followed by ending sounds. After learning individual letter-
sound associations, students study silent consonants, blends, and diagraphs (ch-, kn-, ph-, sh-, th-, wh-, wr-,
-ch, -ck, -sh, -ss, -tch) before moving on to study vowel combinations (e.g., ee, ay, ai, oo, ue) and r-controlled
vowel combinations. As students learn letter-sound correspondences, they are shown a mouth model and are
encouraged to repeat the target sounds.
Phonics rules are taught through engaging videos and interactive activities that provide practice in the letter-
sound relationships students have learned. For example:
• In Presenting Vowels, students learn the short and long vowel sounds
by watching a video and listening to a song about each vowel letter,
along with words that include the vowel sound.
• In Making Music, students learn the sounds that specific letters or
letter combinations make. They then select a picture of a word that
begins with the sound to collect musical instruments and make a song.
• In Recognize Letter Sound, students associate a specific letter
sound with a letter or letter combination. They hear a letter sound,
select a character face, and then choose which mouth makes the
correct sound.
• In Vowel Drop, students practice associating vowels with their long
vowel sounds. Students hear a long vowel sound, then click on
falling wooden crates with words that include a long vowel sound.
When they click the correct word for the spoken long vowel sound,
a parachute opens at the top of the chair and the chair lands safely.
• In Vowel Explorer, students hear a word with a short or long vowel sound and see a corresponding picture, then
select the vowel that makes the vowel sound they heard.
Alphabet Blackout
Recognize Letter Sound
Vowel Drop
10How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Students are given explicit instruction and practice on how to use their knowledge of letter-sound
correspondence to decode words by blending phonemes. They are taught how consonant sounds, vowel
sounds, consonant blends, vowel patterns, diagraphs, and diphthongs come together to form words.
Imagine Language & Literacy provides a developmental sequence of instruction and practice with
sound-spelling patterns, starting with CVC words, then progressing to CVCe, CCVC, CVCC, and CCVCC
words. Students are also taught to use onsets and rimes effectively as they are taught word families.
As the students’ phonics skills develop, they are taught to decode words with additional chunks of
sounds, such as inflectional endings, prefixes, and suffixes. They also learn how to divide multisyllabic
words into syllables.
• In Syllable Story, students are taught to first identify the vowels and then the consonants in a multisyllabic
word to determine where the word should be divided.
• In Syllable Split, students read sentences containing multisyllabic words and then complete a process of
dividing them into “chunks” (syllables), and then applying their phonics skills to decode the chunks and put
them together. For example, they are shown the sentences, “Tom heard a sudden noise. His robot was
broken.” Focusing on the first syllable in broken, they are taught how to recognize the blend br and the o.
Then, they identify the next chunk, ken. Finally, they put the chunks together to pronounce the word broken.
Imagine Language & Literacy builds automatic word recognition by explicitly teaching high-frequency
words as sight words. Students are introduced to high-frequency words from the Fry word list, including both
regularly and irregularly spelled words. They practice identifying and decoding sight words through engaging
online activities. For example:
• In Note This, students learn how to read and understand high-frequency
words in context sentences from books. They then use the words in
sentences they write in their digital notebook.
• In Word Survivor, students hear a sight word and match what they hear
to the correct safari hat or animal to move forward on a safari map.
• In Blaster, students practice recognizing high-frequency words through an
interactive multimedia game. They hear a word spoken and maneuver a
spaceship to blast the asteroid with the correct sight word on it.
Printable offline reteaching lessons help reinforce the sight words that students first learn online.
Imagine Language & Literacy teaches encoding skills. As students learn the various decoding skills
described above, they engage in interactive practice hearing letter sounds (individually and blended), words with
regular, common spelling patterns, words with inflectional ends and affixes, and multisyllabic words, and then
identifying or generating their correct spelling. Students also practice spelling the sight words introduced in the
program. They use on-screen letters as manipulatives to match the sounds of letters and words, practice writing
and spelling words from dictation, and engage in writing tasks related to digital books they read. They also
practice spelling through interactive games. For example:
• In the Spell Ball Showdown, students demonstrate their knowledge of phonograms or word families to
spell words.
• In Ready to Spell, students practice spelling common words found in digital books that they will read
later in the program and learn to use word family patterns to help spell high-frequency words.
Printable offline Teacher Resources include practice applying a spelling pattern to make new words.
Blaster Sight Words
Students are given explicit instruction and practice on how to use their knowledge of letter-sound
correspondence to decode words by blending phonemes. They are taught how consonant sounds, vowel
sounds, consonant blends, vowel patterns, diagraphs, and diphthongs come together to form words.
Imagine Language & Literacy provides a developmental sequence of instruction and practice with
sound-spelling patterns, starting with CVC words, then progressing to CVCe, CCVC, CVCC, and CCVCC
words. Students are also taught to use onsets and rimes effectively as they are taught word families.
As the students’ phonics skills develop, they are taught to decode words with additional chunks of
sounds, such as inflectional endings, prefixes, and suffixes. They also learn how to divide multisyllabic
words into syllables.
• In Syllable Story, students are taught to first identify the vowels and then the consonants in a multisyllabic
word to determine where the word should be divided.
• In Syllable Split, students read sentences containing multisyllabic words and then complete a process of
dividing them into “chunks” (syllables), and then applying their phonics skills to decode the chunks and put
them together. For example, they are shown the sentences, “Tom heard a sudden noise. His robot was
broken.” Focusing on the first syllable in broken, they are taught how to recognize the blend br and the o.
Then, they identify the next chunk, ken. Finally, they put the chunks together to pronounce the word broken.
Imagine Language & Literacy builds automatic word recognition by explicitly teaching high-frequency
words as sight words. Students are introduced to high-frequency words from the Fry word list, including both
regularly and irregularly spelled words. They practice identifying and decoding sight words through engaging
online activities. For example:
• In Note This, students learn how to read and understand high-frequency
words in context sentences from books. They then use the words in
sentences they write in their digital notebook.
• In Word Survivor, students hear a sight word and match what they hear
to the correct safari hat or animal to move forward on a safari map.
• In Blaster, students practice recognizing high-frequency words through an
interactive multimedia game. They hear a word spoken and maneuver a
spaceship to blast the asteroid with the correct sight word on it.
Printable offline reteaching lessons help reinforce the sight words that students first learn online.
Imagine Language & Literacy teaches encoding skills. As students learn the various decoding skills
described above, they engage in interactive practice hearing letter sounds (individually and blended), words with
regular, common spelling patterns, words with inflectional ends and affixes, and multisyllabic words, and then
identifying or generating their correct spelling. Students also practice spelling the sight words introduced in the
program. They use on-screen letters as manipulatives to match the sounds of letters and words, practice writing
and spelling words from dictation, and engage in writing tasks related to digital books they read. They also
practice spelling through interactive games. For example:
• In the Spell Ball Showdown, students demonstrate their knowledge of phonograms or word families to
spell words.
• In Ready to Spell, students practice spelling common words found in digital books that they will read
later in the program and learn to use word family patterns to help spell high-frequency words.
Printable offline Teacher Resources include practice applying a spelling pattern to make new words.
Blaster Sight Words
11How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Imagine Language & Literacy provides ample opportunities for students to apply their developing
phonics and word recognition skills in focused activities and in the context of reading digital books.
Students engage in focused phonics and sight word lessons, as described above, in preparation for reading a
corresponding short digital Beginning Book with controlled, decodable text. They apply the same skills while
reading the Beginning Book, first in read-aloud mode, then independently as they record themselves reading
orally. For example:
• In one of the first lessons, students learn to associate the letters a, m, s, and d with the corresponding
sounds /ă/, /m/, /s/, and /d/ to prepare them to read the book Sam and Dad. In the process, students learn
to read and spell words such as dad, sad, and Sam.
• Later on, as students’ decoding skills progress, they learn the -ai vowel pattern and learn phonics rules
about vowel teams, in preparation for reading another Beginning Book. They practice decoding and
spelling ai words in isolation (e.g., pain, plain, mail) and then read the book Oh the Pain!, a decodable
text that features ai words.
The Beginning Book preparatory lessons address other reading skills and strategies in addition to phonics and word
recognition, such as vocabulary and reading comprehension. Each Beginning Book unit ends with several reading
comprehension questions. That way, students learn that decoding is ultimately about reading for meaning.
As students’ sight vocabulary and decoding skills grow, they progress from Beginning Books to digital Transition
Books—longer controlled, decodable texts. These follow the same pattern of instruction and practice focused
on phonics and sight word development (and other skills), then applying the new skills while reading a
corresponding Transition Book, followed by comprehension questions.
Beginning Books and Transition Books are also printable to enable additional reading practice.
Oral Language and Vocabulary Development
Language is the “socially shared code or system for representing concepts through the use of symbols and
rules that govern how they’re combined” (Owens, 2020, pp. 5-6). In oral language, the symbols are speech
sounds and their combination to form spoken words. Oral language is comprised of phonology (the rules of
speech sounds and syllables), semantics (rules governing the meaning of words and word combinations) and
word knowledge (vocabulary), morphology (meanings of word parts), syntax (grammar rules), and pragmatics
(social rules of communication) (Owens, 2020). Oral language skills are critical because research has shown
that oral language comprehension ability, combined with word recognition skills, account for 65 percent or more
of the variance in children’s reading comprehension (Catts et al., 2005). Development of phonological skills was
addressed previously in this paper. Research on the development of semantics and vocabulary, morphology,
syntax, and pragmatics are addressed in this section.
Semantics
Semantic knowledge and skills needed for oral language development include word definitions, semantic
features of words (e.g., "mother" includes both parent and female), and word relationships (e.g., synonyms and
antonyms) (Owens, 2020). Students also need to learn to interpret figurative language because “[c]onversation,
classroom teaching, and reading use figurative expressions frequently” (Owens, 2020, p., 342). Research
shows that semantic knowledge predicts the ability to read words—both phonetically regular and irregular
words—presented in isolation and in the context of sentences (Ricketts et al., 2016).
Imagine Language & Literacy provides ample opportunities for students to apply their developing
phonics and word recognition skills in focused activities and in the context of reading digital books.
Students engage in focused phonics and sight word lessons, as described above, in preparation for reading a
corresponding short digital Beginning Book with controlled, decodable text. They apply the same skills while
reading the Beginning Book, first in read-aloud mode, then independently as they record themselves reading
orally. For example:
• In one of the first lessons, students learn to associate the letters a, m, s, and d with the corresponding
sounds /ă/, /m/, /s/, and /d/ to prepare them to read the book Sam and Dad. In the process, students learn
to read and spell words such as dad, sad, and Sam.
• Later on, as students’ decoding skills progress, they learn the -ai vowel pattern and learn phonics rules
about vowel teams, in preparation for reading another Beginning Book. They practice decoding and
spelling ai words in isolation (e.g., pain, plain, mail) and then read the book Oh the Pain!, a decodable
text that features ai words.
The Beginning Book preparatory lessons address other reading skills and strategies in addition to phonics and word
recognition, such as vocabulary and reading comprehension. Each Beginning Book unit ends with several reading
comprehension questions. That way, students learn that decoding is ultimately about reading for meaning.
As students’ sight vocabulary and decoding skills grow, they progress from Beginning Books to digital Transition
Books—longer controlled, decodable texts. These follow the same pattern of instruction and practice focused
on phonics and sight word development (and other skills), then applying the new skills while reading a
corresponding Transition Book, followed by comprehension questions.
Beginning Books and Transition Books are also printable to enable additional reading practice.
Oral Language and Vocabulary Development
Language is the “socially shared code or system for representing concepts through the use of symbols and
rules that govern how they’re combined” (Owens, 2020, pp. 5-6). In oral language, the symbols are speech
sounds and their combination to form spoken words. Oral language is comprised of phonology (the rules of
speech sounds and syllables), semantics (rules governing the meaning of words and word combinations) and
word knowledge (vocabulary), morphology (meanings of word parts), syntax (grammar rules), and pragmatics
(social rules of communication) (Owens, 2020). Oral language skills are critical because research has shown
that oral language comprehension ability, combined with word recognition skills, account for 65 percent or more
of the variance in children’s reading comprehension (Catts et al., 2005). Development of phonological skills was
addressed previously in this paper. Research on the development of semantics and vocabulary, morphology,
syntax, and pragmatics are addressed in this section.
Semantics
Semantic knowledge and skills needed for oral language development include word definitions, semantic
features of words (e.g., "mother" includes both parent and female), and word relationships (e.g., synonyms and
antonyms) (Owens, 2020). Students also need to learn to interpret figurative language because “[c]onversation,
classroom teaching, and reading use figurative expressions frequently” (Owens, 2020, p., 342). Research
shows that semantic knowledge predicts the ability to read words—both phonetically regular and irregular
words—presented in isolation and in the context of sentences (Ricketts et al., 2016).
12How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Vocabulary
Beyond the need for word knowledge to comprehend oral language and read words, research finds a reciprocal
relationship between vocabulary and reading comprehension. Vocabulary instruction positively impacts
children’s reading comprehension because it enables students to make sense of a text, while listening and
reading comprehension ability contributes to growth in their vocabulary because skilled comprehenders are able
to deduce the meaning of new words they encounter from context (Wagner & Meros, 2010).
Given this reciprocal relationship, literacy experts advise that vocabulary development requires some direct
instruction. In consideration of the types of words that might best be addressed through direct instruction, Beck
et al. (2013) classify vocabulary into three tiers:
• Tier 1 includes basic words frequently encountered in early childhood that most students already know
when they come to school. Beck et al. advise that these do not require direct instruction.
• Tier 2 consists of high-utility academic words that are used across content areas, more typically
encountered in text than in conversation, and critical for reading comprehension.
• Tier 3 consists of specialized content-specific words that are important to build students’ background
knowledge for a specific lesson.
Research indicates that effective vocabulary instruction should:
• Focus primarily on teaching Tier 2 academic words with high utility across subject domains, that add
“precision and specificity” to concepts, that have multiple meanings, and/or that have different uses in
different contexts (Beck et al., 2013, p. 281).
• Introduce Tier 3 subject-specific words in the context of reading focused on that subject (Beck et al., 2013).
• Provide both clear definitions and instruction focused on the meaning of words in context (Graves, 2016).
• Focus attention on “critical attributes” of new words, and provide examples and non-examples for these
attributes (Archer & Hughes, 2011, p.75).
• “Introduce or have students generate synonyms” for new words (Archer & Hughes, 2011, p. 82).
• Provide repeated exposure to words in a variety of contexts (NICHD, 2000).
• Teach word-learning strategies, including use of word parts (i.e., morphological structure [see below]),
context, and the dictionary (Graves, 2016).
• Engage students in semantic mapping and semantic features analysis (Archer & Hughes, 2011; Graves, 2016).
• Capitalize on graphic organizers as learning aids (Archer & Hughes, 2011).
• Incorporate computer-based vocabulary instruction (NICHD, 2000).
Morphology
Morphology is the awareness and study of morphemes, “the basic units of meaning within words,” and
how words can be broken down into component units of meaning (Duncan, 2018, p. 226). There are two
types of morphemes: free (independent root words) and bound (meaningful word parts that cannot function
independently, such as prefixes, suffixes, and endings that indicate possessives, plurals, and verb tenses)
(Duncan, 2018; Owens, 2020).
Research shows that strong morphological knowledge helps children decode and understand
new complex words, and contributes to vocabulary development and reading comprehension (Duncan, 2018).
Vocabulary
Beyond the need for word knowledge to comprehend oral language and read words, research finds a reciprocal
relationship between vocabulary and reading comprehension. Vocabulary instruction positively impacts
children’s reading comprehension because it enables students to make sense of a text, while listening and
reading comprehension ability contributes to growth in their vocabulary because skilled comprehenders are able
to deduce the meaning of new words they encounter from context (Wagner & Meros, 2010).
Given this reciprocal relationship, literacy experts advise that vocabulary development requires some direct
instruction. In consideration of the types of words that might best be addressed through direct instruction, Beck
et al. (2013) classify vocabulary into three tiers:
• Tier 1 includes basic words frequently encountered in early childhood that most students already know
when they come to school. Beck et al. advise that these do not require direct instruction.
• Tier 2 consists of high-utility academic words that are used across content areas, more typically
encountered in text than in conversation, and critical for reading comprehension.
• Tier 3 consists of specialized content-specific words that are important to build students’ background
knowledge for a specific lesson.
Research indicates that effective vocabulary instruction should:
• Focus primarily on teaching Tier 2 academic words with high utility across subject domains, that add
“precision and specificity” to concepts, that have multiple meanings, and/or that have different uses in
different contexts (Beck et al., 2013, p. 281).
• Introduce Tier 3 subject-specific words in the context of reading focused on that subject (Beck et al., 2013).
• Provide both clear definitions and instruction focused on the meaning of words in context (Graves, 2016).
• Focus attention on “critical attributes” of new words, and provide examples and non-examples for these
attributes (Archer & Hughes, 2011, p.75).
• “Introduce or have students generate synonyms” for new words (Archer & Hughes, 2011, p. 82).
• Provide repeated exposure to words in a variety of contexts (NICHD, 2000).
• Teach word-learning strategies, including use of word parts (i.e., morphological structure [see below]),
context, and the dictionary (Graves, 2016).
• Engage students in semantic mapping and semantic features analysis (Archer & Hughes, 2011; Graves, 2016).
• Capitalize on graphic organizers as learning aids (Archer & Hughes, 2011).
• Incorporate computer-based vocabulary instruction (NICHD, 2000).
Morphology
Morphology is the awareness and study of morphemes, “the basic units of meaning within words,” and
how words can be broken down into component units of meaning (Duncan, 2018, p. 226). There are two
types of morphemes: free (independent root words) and bound (meaningful word parts that cannot function
independently, such as prefixes, suffixes, and endings that indicate possessives, plurals, and verb tenses)
(Duncan, 2018; Owens, 2020).
Research shows that strong morphological knowledge helps children decode and understand
new complex words, and contributes to vocabulary development and reading comprehension (Duncan, 2018).
13How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Syntax
Syntax refers to the grammar rules that govern the structure and word order of sentences in language (Owens,
2020). According to research, syntactic competence in early preschool is predictive of reading level at age eight
(Gravani & Meyer, n.d.) and of oral reading fluency abilities at ages nine to eleven, independent of cognitive
ability (Durand et al., 2013). Based on their review of research on improving syntactic competence, Gravani and
Meyer (n.d.) offer recommendations for syntax instruction, including teaching the concept of subject and verb
in sentences; targeting specific grammar rules in meaningful contexts, including analysis skills (e.g., identifying
subjects, verb phrases, and objects in sentences, and different sentence types) and self-analysis skills (i.e.,
paraphrasing and self-questioning); and addressing signal words in sentences.
Pragmatics
Pragmatics refers to “communicative competence” (Pearson & De Villiers, 2005, pp. 3-4) to use language
appropriately in various social situations. Research shows that children’s development of pragmatics includes
several component competencies:
• Developing speech acts (generating sentences for various communicative functions)
• Conversational skill (initiating, sustaining, and repairing face-to-face verbal conversations)
• “Adjusting one’s language to fit the social context of the conversation” (Pearson & De Villiers, 2005, pp. 3-4)
• Developing skill at various “genres” of extended communication (e.g., narrating a story, explaining an
event, giving directions, or persuading someone in an argument) (Pearson & De Villiers, 2005, pp. 3-4)
Results from correlational and experimental studies indicate that “providing children with opportunities to engage
in high-quality conversations, coupled with exposure to advanced language models, matters for language
development” (Petscher et al., 2020, pp. 5,273).
How Imagine Language & Literacy Provides Research-Based Instruction for Oral Language and
Vocabulary Development
Imagine Language & Literacy provides direct instruction and practice designed to build students’ semantic
knowledge and skill, vocabulary, morphological knowledge, syntactic competence, and ability to apply
pragmatics.
The program focuses on building both oral vocabulary and reading vocabulary, with an emphasis on Tier
2 high-utility general academic words and some Tier 3 subject-specific words selected from state exams, the
Academic Word List (AWL) (Coxhead, 2000), and research by Marzano and Pickering (2005). The program
teaches more than 800 thematically linked words and reinforces each word 8 to 12 times.
In academic vocabulary instruction, students are taught high-leverage, cross-curricular vocabulary.
Each lesson begins with an assessment and practice of previously taught academic vocabulary. Students then
begin learning a new set of words. They watch an engaging video that includes audio, photos, animations,
and interactive text that shows the words in context. The beginning of the video is designed to get students’
attention and activate prior knowledge. Each targeted vocabulary word is explained in student-friendly language,
accompanied by pictures to illustrate critical aspects of the word. Next, the word is defined and used in a
sentence. In subsequent lessons, students engage in repeated practice and demonstrate understanding of the
newly encountered vocabulary words.
Syntax
Syntax refers to the grammar rules that govern the structure and word order of sentences in language (Owens,
2020). According to research, syntactic competence in early preschool is predictive of reading level at age eight
(Gravani & Meyer, n.d.) and of oral reading fluency abilities at ages nine to eleven, independent of cognitive
ability (Durand et al., 2013). Based on their review of research on improving syntactic competence, Gravani and
Meyer (n.d.) offer recommendations for syntax instruction, including teaching the concept of subject and verb
in sentences; targeting specific grammar rules in meaningful contexts, including analysis skills (e.g., identifying
subjects, verb phrases, and objects in sentences, and different sentence types) and self-analysis skills (i.e.,
paraphrasing and self-questioning); and addressing signal words in sentences.
Pragmatics
Pragmatics refers to “communicative competence” (Pearson & De Villiers, 2005, pp. 3-4) to use language
appropriately in various social situations. Research shows that children’s development of pragmatics includes
several component competencies:
• Developing speech acts (generating sentences for various communicative functions)
• Conversational skill (initiating, sustaining, and repairing face-to-face verbal conversations)
• “Adjusting one’s language to fit the social context of the conversation” (Pearson & De Villiers, 2005, pp. 3-4)
• Developing skill at various “genres” of extended communication (e.g., narrating a story, explaining an
event, giving directions, or persuading someone in an argument) (Pearson & De Villiers, 2005, pp. 3-4)
Results from correlational and experimental studies indicate that “providing children with opportunities to engage
in high-quality conversations, coupled with exposure to advanced language models, matters for language
development” (Petscher et al., 2020, pp. 5,273).
How Imagine Language & Literacy Provides Research-Based Instruction for Oral Language and
Vocabulary Development
Imagine Language & Literacy provides direct instruction and practice designed to build students’ semantic
knowledge and skill, vocabulary, morphological knowledge, syntactic competence, and ability to apply
pragmatics.
The program focuses on building both oral vocabulary and reading vocabulary, with an emphasis on Tier
2 high-utility general academic words and some Tier 3 subject-specific words selected from state exams, the
Academic Word List (AWL) (Coxhead, 2000), and research by Marzano and Pickering (2005). The program
teaches more than 800 thematically linked words and reinforces each word 8 to 12 times.
In academic vocabulary instruction, students are taught high-leverage, cross-curricular vocabulary.
Each lesson begins with an assessment and practice of previously taught academic vocabulary. Students then
begin learning a new set of words. They watch an engaging video that includes audio, photos, animations,
and interactive text that shows the words in context. The beginning of the video is designed to get students’
attention and activate prior knowledge. Each targeted vocabulary word is explained in student-friendly language,
accompanied by pictures to illustrate critical aspects of the word. Next, the word is defined and used in a
sentence. In subsequent lessons, students engage in repeated practice and demonstrate understanding of the
newly encountered vocabulary words.
14How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Students also engage in contextualized vocabulary instruction before
reading a book or article. Students learn new words by hearing the word
and its definition and are shown the word in the context of the book or
passage. The program then engages students in online activities and
interactive games to promote active learning of the new word. For example:
• In Vocab Lab, students are asked to connect with the word by
answering a question about it.
• They are required to make an oral recording explaining the
new vocabulary in their own words and review the accuracy of
their explanation.
• In WordAtron, students hear a definition, play a matching game
to apply their understanding, then fill in the blank in sentences by
choosing the correct vocabulary word in context.
Imagine Language & Literacy addresses vocabulary research-based best practices as follows:
• Students learn clear definitions of vocabulary in child-friendly language through videos presented by
peers (children in the same age range), with three unique videos that each explain the same word in
authentic contexts. After students watch these peer-modeling videos, online activities prompt them to
restate the explanation in their own words.
• The instructional videos and interactive practice provide experience with visual and oral definitions of
words as well as examples and non-examples.
• Students also use graphic organizers focused on examples and non-examples of new vocabulary. These
examples and non-examples focus attention on key semantic features of the words.
• Basic vocabulary instruction is grouped by category—e.g., animals, body parts, books, classroom,
clothing, food, house, outdoors, people, places, playground, transportation, and weather—to focus
students’ attention on key semantic features. Semantic mapping graphic organizers also help build depth
of understanding.
• The program emphasizes vocabulary development in the context of reading for meaning. Vocabulary
lessons and routines are consistently sequenced as preparation for reading a leveled text in which the
new word is used. Many practice activities focus on use of words in sentence context. For example:
• In Word-A-Tron, students learn the meaning of important story vocabulary. They demonstrate
their understanding of the word by placing it in a sentence. They also select other words that are
closely related to the target vocabulary word.
• In Vocab Dash, students use a monkey avatar to run along a path, collecting fruit and vocabulary
words while avoiding obstacles. Students pass through gates where they select the correct
vocabulary word in a sentence.
• In Vocab Island, students read, say, and hear a new vocabulary word they find on a message
in a bottle. They then read the word in a sentence and see a visual representation of it before
choosing the correct definition. Then, students write their own message in a bottle using the new
vocabulary words they’ve learned. They check their answer against a rubric before submitting.
Vocab Lab
WordAtron
Students also engage in contextualized vocabulary instruction before
reading a book or article. Students learn new words by hearing the word
and its definition and are shown the word in the context of the book or
passage. The program then engages students in online activities and
interactive games to promote active learning of the new word. For example:
• In Vocab Lab, students are asked to connect with the word by
answering a question about it.
• They are required to make an oral recording explaining the
new vocabulary in their own words and review the accuracy of
their explanation.
• In WordAtron, students hear a definition, play a matching game
to apply their understanding, then fill in the blank in sentences by
choosing the correct vocabulary word in context.
Imagine Language & Literacy addresses vocabulary research-based best practices as follows:
• Students learn clear definitions of vocabulary in child-friendly language through videos presented by
peers (children in the same age range), with three unique videos that each explain the same word in
authentic contexts. After students watch these peer-modeling videos, online activities prompt them to
restate the explanation in their own words.
• The instructional videos and interactive practice provide experience with visual and oral definitions of
words as well as examples and non-examples.
• Students also use graphic organizers focused on examples and non-examples of new vocabulary. These
examples and non-examples focus attention on key semantic features of the words.
• Basic vocabulary instruction is grouped by category—e.g., animals, body parts, books, classroom,
clothing, food, house, outdoors, people, places, playground, transportation, and weather—to focus
students’ attention on key semantic features. Semantic mapping graphic organizers also help build depth
of understanding.
• The program emphasizes vocabulary development in the context of reading for meaning. Vocabulary
lessons and routines are consistently sequenced as preparation for reading a leveled text in which the
new word is used. Many practice activities focus on use of words in sentence context. For example:
• In Word-A-Tron, students learn the meaning of important story vocabulary. They demonstrate
their understanding of the word by placing it in a sentence. They also select other words that are
closely related to the target vocabulary word.
• In Vocab Dash, students use a monkey avatar to run along a path, collecting fruit and vocabulary
words while avoiding obstacles. Students pass through gates where they select the correct
vocabulary word in a sentence.
• In Vocab Island, students read, say, and hear a new vocabulary word they find on a message
in a bottle. They then read the word in a sentence and see a visual representation of it before
choosing the correct definition. Then, students write their own message in a bottle using the new
vocabulary words they’ve learned. They check their answer against a rubric before submitting.
Vocab Lab
WordAtron
15How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
• In Vocab Lab, students listen to a definition and context sentence, then answer a think-aloud
question. Next, students help a character move across the screen to catch the correct image or
synonym for the new vocabulary word. Then, they match the new vocabulary word or a synonym
or fill in cloze sentences with the target word.
• Students learn that some words have differences in meaning depending on the context. For
example, in Word Alert students learn that the word specific can mean either exact or detailed. A
peer-modeling video defines the word specific as precise and contrasts it with the word general,
which has the opposite meaning (e.g., the general location of Mumbai is in India, but the specific
location is on the western coast of India). Later in the video, students learn that the word specific
also can have a slightly different meaning related to stating one’s particular purpose. In the video,
a boy complains to his friend that he should have been more specific about what to wear to a
party, because one boy showed up in a costume. In another lesson, students learn that the word
rock can be a verb meaning to sway or a noun meaning a genre of music or a stone.
• When learning new words, graphic organizers focus attention on synonyms and antonyms, and other related
words. When reading grade-level texts, students can access a pop-up glossary that provides both synonyms
and antonyms of vocabulary words. Students also match new vocabulary words and their synonyms.
• Students are taught strategies to help interpret the meaning of figurative
language (e.g., metaphors and similes). For example, in Figurative Finds,
students learn that similes use the words like or as to compare things.
Students are asked to create an image that demonstrates the simile the
pond was like a mirror. They then examine passages, poems, and stories
to see how authors use these comparisons to create mental images.
Students are taught how to use the context of a sentence in a text passage
when they do not know a definition of a word. Imagine Language & Literacy also
provides offline vocabulary instructional routines to extend vocabulary learning.
Students are taught to identify word parts (e.g., roots, prefixes,
suffixes) as useful tools for determining the meaning of unfamiliar
words. For example, in Fix It Up, students are asked to chop off the word
part dis from the base word discover. The instructional video teaches
students that dis is a negative prefix that means not or none. When dis is
added to the beginning of the word, it gives the word an opposite meaning.
They also learn that dis can be used with some but not all base words.
They then complete sentences with words containing the dis prefix.
In subsequent practice activities, students apply what they have learned
about base words, prefixes, and suffixes to create new words.
Imagine Language & Literacy explicitly teaches the role of syntax, and how the rules of grammar and
word order shape the meaning of a sentence or passage. The program provides lessons and practice
focused on parts of speech, and instruction goes beyond the basics to address proper nouns; singular and
plural nouns (regular and irregular); personal pronouns; to be verbs; verb tenses, including simple present,
simple and irregular past, and simple future; and comparative and superlative adjectives. In vocabulary
instruction, high-utility Tier 2 words are taught in groups organized by part of speech.
Instruction also covers contractions, subject-verb order, question words, and correct word order in questions.
Figurative Finds
Fix It Up
• In Vocab Lab, students listen to a definition and context sentence, then answer a think-aloud
question. Next, students help a character move across the screen to catch the correct image or
synonym for the new vocabulary word. Then, they match the new vocabulary word or a synonym
or fill in cloze sentences with the target word.
• Students learn that some words have differences in meaning depending on the context. For
example, in Word Alert students learn that the word specific can mean either exact or detailed. A
peer-modeling video defines the word specific as precise and contrasts it with the word general,
which has the opposite meaning (e.g., the general location of Mumbai is in India, but the specific
location is on the western coast of India). Later in the video, students learn that the word specific
also can have a slightly different meaning related to stating one’s particular purpose. In the video,
a boy complains to his friend that he should have been more specific about what to wear to a
party, because one boy showed up in a costume. In another lesson, students learn that the word
rock can be a verb meaning to sway or a noun meaning a genre of music or a stone.
• When learning new words, graphic organizers focus attention on synonyms and antonyms, and other related
words. When reading grade-level texts, students can access a pop-up glossary that provides both synonyms
and antonyms of vocabulary words. Students also match new vocabulary words and their synonyms.
• Students are taught strategies to help interpret the meaning of figurative
language (e.g., metaphors and similes). For example, in Figurative Finds,
students learn that similes use the words like or as to compare things.
Students are asked to create an image that demonstrates the simile the
pond was like a mirror. They then examine passages, poems, and stories
to see how authors use these comparisons to create mental images.
Students are taught how to use the context of a sentence in a text passage
when they do not know a definition of a word. Imagine Language & Literacy also
provides offline vocabulary instructional routines to extend vocabulary learning.
Students are taught to identify word parts (e.g., roots, prefixes,
suffixes) as useful tools for determining the meaning of unfamiliar
words. For example, in Fix It Up, students are asked to chop off the word
part dis from the base word discover. The instructional video teaches
students that dis is a negative prefix that means not or none. When dis is
added to the beginning of the word, it gives the word an opposite meaning.
They also learn that dis can be used with some but not all base words.
They then complete sentences with words containing the dis prefix.
In subsequent practice activities, students apply what they have learned
about base words, prefixes, and suffixes to create new words.
Imagine Language & Literacy explicitly teaches the role of syntax, and how the rules of grammar and
word order shape the meaning of a sentence or passage. The program provides lessons and practice
focused on parts of speech, and instruction goes beyond the basics to address proper nouns; singular and
plural nouns (regular and irregular); personal pronouns; to be verbs; verb tenses, including simple present,
simple and irregular past, and simple future; and comparative and superlative adjectives. In vocabulary
instruction, high-utility Tier 2 words are taught in groups organized by part of speech.
Instruction also covers contractions, subject-verb order, question words, and correct word order in questions.
Figurative Finds
Fix It Up
16How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Grammar instruction is reinforced through interactive online practice
activities. For example:
• In Listen Up, students hear several passages and then choose
pictures to answer grammar questions in each passage. Each time
they choose the correct picture, carved stone doors leading to an
ancient treasure open farther. Students then review any questions
they missed.
• History Hero offers practice by asking students to identify the
correct conjugation of verbs. Each time students match the subject
to the correct verb, they enlarge a famous landmark that has been
miniaturized by an evil villain. Students then review the parts of speech
or grammar concepts that they missed.
• In Time Seekers, students use their knowledge about subject and verb
order in sentences plus semantic clues to fill in the blanks in sentences.
In addition, students have opportunities to apply what they are learning
through editing practice in context.
• After learning that in English, question words are placed at the
beginning of a question and come before helping verbs or the verb
to be, students edit question sentences that do not have the correct
word order.
• In Excellent Editor activities, students apply a wide variety of grammar
rules in context. Students are challenged to analyze text and correct
grammar and syntax errors. For example, they apply what they have
learned to edit the Fun Facts section of a newspaper.
The program also provides opportunities for applying self-analysis skills
related to texts they are reading, as part of reading comprehension
instruction (see the section on Reading Comprehension below for more details).
Imagine Language & Literacy teaches basic and fluent conversational phrases and how to apply them in
context. Instruction includes two types of conversational phrases: English phrases for newcomers and phrases
for general school readiness.
In Let’s Talk and Daily Conversations, students watch videos to learn and repeat the following basic English phrases:
• Hello. Goodbye.
• Come here.
• What is this?
• Please. Thank you. You're welcome.
• What is your name?
• Where is it? Here it is.
• I like it. I don't like it.
• I don't understand.
• It's your turn.
• Excuse me. I'm sorry.
• What do you want to do?
• How's the weather?
• Where are you going?
• How are you?
• What happens next?
Excellent Editor
Listen Up
History Hero
Grammar instruction is reinforced through interactive online practice
activities. For example:
• In Listen Up, students hear several passages and then choose
pictures to answer grammar questions in each passage. Each time
they choose the correct picture, carved stone doors leading to an
ancient treasure open farther. Students then review any questions
they missed.
• History Hero offers practice by asking students to identify the
correct conjugation of verbs. Each time students match the subject
to the correct verb, they enlarge a famous landmark that has been
miniaturized by an evil villain. Students then review the parts of speech
or grammar concepts that they missed.
• In Time Seekers, students use their knowledge about subject and verb
order in sentences plus semantic clues to fill in the blanks in sentences.
In addition, students have opportunities to apply what they are learning
through editing practice in context.
• After learning that in English, question words are placed at the
beginning of a question and come before helping verbs or the verb
to be, students edit question sentences that do not have the correct
word order.
• In Excellent Editor activities, students apply a wide variety of grammar
rules in context. Students are challenged to analyze text and correct
grammar and syntax errors. For example, they apply what they have
learned to edit the Fun Facts section of a newspaper.
The program also provides opportunities for applying self-analysis skills
related to texts they are reading, as part of reading comprehension
instruction (see the section on Reading Comprehension below for more details).
Imagine Language & Literacy teaches basic and fluent conversational phrases and how to apply them in
context. Instruction includes two types of conversational phrases: English phrases for newcomers and phrases
for general school readiness.
In Let’s Talk and Daily Conversations, students watch videos to learn and repeat the following basic English phrases:
• Hello. Goodbye.
• Come here.
• What is this?
• Please. Thank you. You're welcome.
• What is your name?
• Where is it? Here it is.
• I like it. I don't like it.
• I don't understand.
• It's your turn.
• Excuse me. I'm sorry.
• What do you want to do?
• How's the weather?
• Where are you going?
• How are you?
• What happens next?
Excellent Editor
Listen Up
History Hero
17How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Students build conversational fluency by learning to recognize and repeat basic English phrases in a variety of
authentic contexts. For example:
• In Create a Comic, students make a comic strip by choosing the characters they want to use and then
choosing the phrases that best fit the context of the situation.
• In Comic Talk, students choose a comic book character and record English phrases to fill in missing
dialogue for their character.
• In Rock N Record, students watch a video and record English phrases. After recording, they listen to the
phrases spoken in English and rate their recording.
• In Say What, students must demonstrate the ability to observe nonverbal cues and carefully listen to
determine which phrase or social greeting fits in a given social context. They watch a series of videos
that each have a missing phrase. For each video, they click on the phrase that belongs in the appropriate
social setting.
Phrases introduced and practiced in these lessons address situations such as meeting new people, sharing
personal information (e.g., where they are from, how old they are), discussing what people are doing, discussing
food and drink, discussing the calendar, conversation involving counting, conversation involving time, discussing
the weather, asking for and giving directions, and being polite during conversations.
The program includes offline classroom activities to help reinforce and extend the pragmatic skills learned
online. For example:
• In Good Morning, students play a game to review common phrases.
• In My Own Calendar, students fill out a calendar and use it to review numbers and calendar vocabulary.
• In Names and Numbers, students role-play conversations about addresses and phone numbers.
• In Tell It Again, students listen to and then reenact a story.
• In Tell Me a Story, students use puppets to reenact a story.
Fluency
The National Reading Panel defines fluency as the ability to “read text with speed, accuracy, and proper
expression” (NICHD, 2000, p. 3-1). Speed is how fast one reads, typically measured in words per minute.
Accuracy is the percentage of words read correctly per minute. Expression, or prosody, refers to reading with
appropriate tone, pitch, phrasing (appropriate pauses and changes in speed), and use of “punctuation to group
words into natural units” (Marshall & Campbell, 2006, pp. 191-192).
Fluency is important because it is a strong predictor of reading comprehension in upper elementary school
and beyond (Rasinki et al., 2011). In their review of research on reading fluency, Hudson et al. (2005) point out
that “inaccurate word reading can lead to misinterpretations of the text”; slow reading can make it difficult to
“construct an ongoing interpretation of the text”; and ”[p]oor prosody can lead to confusion through inappropriate
or meaningless groupings of words” (p. 703).
Students build conversational fluency by learning to recognize and repeat basic English phrases in a variety of
authentic contexts. For example:
• In Create a Comic, students make a comic strip by choosing the characters they want to use and then
choosing the phrases that best fit the context of the situation.
• In Comic Talk, students choose a comic book character and record English phrases to fill in missing
dialogue for their character.
• In Rock N Record, students watch a video and record English phrases. After recording, they listen to the
phrases spoken in English and rate their recording.
• In Say What, students must demonstrate the ability to observe nonverbal cues and carefully listen to
determine which phrase or social greeting fits in a given social context. They watch a series of videos
that each have a missing phrase. For each video, they click on the phrase that belongs in the appropriate
social setting.
Phrases introduced and practiced in these lessons address situations such as meeting new people, sharing
personal information (e.g., where they are from, how old they are), discussing what people are doing, discussing
food and drink, discussing the calendar, conversation involving counting, conversation involving time, discussing
the weather, asking for and giving directions, and being polite during conversations.
The program includes offline classroom activities to help reinforce and extend the pragmatic skills learned
online. For example:
• In Good Morning, students play a game to review common phrases.
• In My Own Calendar, students fill out a calendar and use it to review numbers and calendar vocabulary.
• In Names and Numbers, students role-play conversations about addresses and phone numbers.
• In Tell It Again, students listen to and then reenact a story.
• In Tell Me a Story, students use puppets to reenact a story.
Fluency
The National Reading Panel defines fluency as the ability to “read text with speed, accuracy, and proper
expression” (NICHD, 2000, p. 3-1). Speed is how fast one reads, typically measured in words per minute.
Accuracy is the percentage of words read correctly per minute. Expression, or prosody, refers to reading with
appropriate tone, pitch, phrasing (appropriate pauses and changes in speed), and use of “punctuation to group
words into natural units” (Marshall & Campbell, 2006, pp. 191-192).
Fluency is important because it is a strong predictor of reading comprehension in upper elementary school
and beyond (Rasinki et al., 2011). In their review of research on reading fluency, Hudson et al. (2005) point out
that “inaccurate word reading can lead to misinterpretations of the text”; slow reading can make it difficult to
“construct an ongoing interpretation of the text”; and ”[p]oor prosody can lead to confusion through inappropriate
or meaningless groupings of words” (p. 703).
18How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Research suggests that effective fluency instruction should:
• Support accurate word identification by teaching students phonics-based decoding skills and teaching
them to “use both letter-sound and meaning cues to determine the exact pronunciation and meaning of
the word that is in the text” (Hudson et al., 2005, p. 703).
• Model correct expression and fluent oral reading using read-alouds (Hudson et al. 2005; Marshall &
Campbell, 2006).
• Offer opportunities for practice using repeated oral reading with models (Hudson et al., 2005; NICHD, 2000).
• Use “assisted reading, choral reading, shared reading, paired reading, audiotapes, and computer
programs” (Hudson et al., 2005, p.708)
• Encourage students to “record, listen, and rerecord” to promote “independent judgment and goal
setting” (Hudson et al., 2005, p. 711).
How Imagine Language & Literacy Provides Research-Based Fluency Instruction
Imagine Language & Literacy teaches a combination of word identification skills and strategies to enable
students to accurately pronounce words in text and extract their meaning. In addition to the phonics-based
decoding skills and sight word recognition instruction and practice discussed previously in the Phonics and
Decoding section, the program explicitly teaches word identification strategies focused on meaning cues.
These include identifying words in context; using syntactic, semantic word structure and analogy clues; and
rereading text when it does not make sense upon the first reading. Meaning-focused word recognition activities
include the following:
• In Understanding Context, students learn that context is the information that helps you make sense of
what you read. They then practice discovering context clues in a sentence.
• In Context Clues, students practice identifying context clues while
reading to determine the meaning of unknown words. Students
search for context clues in text and then answer questions to
practice finding the right meaning of unknown words. They also
choose the correct word meaning based on the context they are
given. For example, students read the following four sentences:
“Alex and her grandma enjoyed a picnic lunch. They ate chicken,
potato salad, and green beans. Alex thought the potato salad was
delectable. She asked for more.” Students learn that the phrase
“she asked for more” provides a good context clue for the word
“delectable.” Alex would not have asked for more food if the food tasted bad. Students also learn to find
the meaning of the word “bland” by identifying context clues that show cause and effect.
Offline materials also provide additional reteaching, challenge, or support. For example, in Word Detectives,
students read short texts and use context clues to determine the meaning of underlined unknown words and write
definitions of them. In one instance, students read the sentence, “The Artic is a desolate place where few people
have ever been. The windswept ice stretches for miles.” They then must write what the word desolate means.
Imagine Language & Literacy models fluent oral reading of digital books to help students learn to read text
with expression, accuracy, speed, and comprehension. Digital books for grades K–2 have a read-aloud option
featuring expressive, fluent narrators who provide excellent examples of prosody skills. This feature is available
in all of the program’s digital book series, including Read Aloud, Beginning, Transition, and Leveled Books.
Context Clues
Research suggests that effective fluency instruction should:
• Support accurate word identification by teaching students phonics-based decoding skills and teaching
them to “use both letter-sound and meaning cues to determine the exact pronunciation and meaning of
the word that is in the text” (Hudson et al., 2005, p. 703).
• Model correct expression and fluent oral reading using read-alouds (Hudson et al. 2005; Marshall &
Campbell, 2006).
• Offer opportunities for practice using repeated oral reading with models (Hudson et al., 2005; NICHD, 2000).
• Use “assisted reading, choral reading, shared reading, paired reading, audiotapes, and computer
programs” (Hudson et al., 2005, p.708)
• Encourage students to “record, listen, and rerecord” to promote “independent judgment and goal
setting” (Hudson et al., 2005, p. 711).
How Imagine Language & Literacy Provides Research-Based Fluency Instruction
Imagine Language & Literacy teaches a combination of word identification skills and strategies to enable
students to accurately pronounce words in text and extract their meaning. In addition to the phonics-based
decoding skills and sight word recognition instruction and practice discussed previously in the Phonics and
Decoding section, the program explicitly teaches word identification strategies focused on meaning cues.
These include identifying words in context; using syntactic, semantic word structure and analogy clues; and
rereading text when it does not make sense upon the first reading. Meaning-focused word recognition activities
include the following:
• In Understanding Context, students learn that context is the information that helps you make sense of
what you read. They then practice discovering context clues in a sentence.
• In Context Clues, students practice identifying context clues while
reading to determine the meaning of unknown words. Students
search for context clues in text and then answer questions to
practice finding the right meaning of unknown words. They also
choose the correct word meaning based on the context they are
given. For example, students read the following four sentences:
“Alex and her grandma enjoyed a picnic lunch. They ate chicken,
potato salad, and green beans. Alex thought the potato salad was
delectable. She asked for more.” Students learn that the phrase
“she asked for more” provides a good context clue for the word
“delectable.” Alex would not have asked for more food if the food tasted bad. Students also learn to find
the meaning of the word “bland” by identifying context clues that show cause and effect.
Offline materials also provide additional reteaching, challenge, or support. For example, in Word Detectives,
students read short texts and use context clues to determine the meaning of underlined unknown words and write
definitions of them. In one instance, students read the sentence, “The Artic is a desolate place where few people
have ever been. The windswept ice stretches for miles.” They then must write what the word desolate means.
Imagine Language & Literacy models fluent oral reading of digital books to help students learn to read text
with expression, accuracy, speed, and comprehension. Digital books for grades K–2 have a read-aloud option
featuring expressive, fluent narrators who provide excellent examples of prosody skills. This feature is available
in all of the program’s digital book series, including Read Aloud, Beginning, Transition, and Leveled Books.
Context Clues
19How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Imagine Language & Literacy provides a variety of oral reading fluency practice, including record-listen-
rerecord activities. The digital books with modeled oral readings allow for several different types of oral reading
practice. Students can participate in:
• Shared reading: A group of students first follow along in their digital books, listening while the narrator
reads aloud. Then students take turns reading parts of the story aloud.
• Echo reading: Students can listen to the modeled reading, then read the text aloud independently
while recording their own voices. They can then listen to both their recording and the modeled reading,
and compare the two. This helps them to self-correct, and they can record a second time if desired.
Recordings are saved in the Student Portfolio for teacher review.
• Repeated oral reading: Students read a digital book multiple times: (1) reading along with the modeled
oral reading; (2) identifying and reading the new words on each page; and (3) reading the entire
book aloud while recording, then playing back their recording. Students are encouraged to listen and
rerecord specific passages as many times as they like, until they are satisfied that they are reading the
book fluently. To accommodate a range of learners, these passages are scaffolded with definitions,
pronunciations, context, and reading strategies.
In offline Reteaching lessons, suggestions are given for a variety of reading strategies to improve fluency,
including choral reading and partner (paired) reading.
To improve students’ reading rate, students engage in Fluent Reader activities—regular, timed oral readings that
measure the number of words read correctly in one minute. Teachers can easily save and document fluency growth
across the school year using the Student Portfolio. The saved oral readings can also be shared with parents.
Reading Comprehension
The RAND Reading Study Group defines reading comprehension as “the process of simultaneously extracting
and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language” (Snow, 2002, p. 11). Based
on Scarborough’s review of research on the relationship between early language and literacy development and
later reading abilities, she concludes that the ability to comprehend the meaning of a text requires readers to have
strong foundational literacy skills plus strong strategic language comprehension skills (background knowledge,
vocabulary knowledge, language structures, verbal reasoning, and literacy knowledge), and they must be able
to execute and coordinate these skills fluently (Scarborough, 2001). Research on foundational skills, vocabulary,
and language structures was addressed previously in this paper (see the sections on Phonological Awareness,
Phonics and Decoding, Oral Language and Vocabulary, and Fluency). Research on other aspects of reading
comprehension is summarized in this section.
Background Knowledge
In their synthesis of research from cognitive psychology, child development, learning and transfer, neuroscience,
and other fields, the authors of How People Learn (2020) found that to process information, students need to
connect new information and skills with preexisting experience and knowledge (National Research Council,
2000). However, in a review of research on “intentional instruction,” Fisher et al. (2011) note that when students
face a new, unfamiliar task, they are often unable to “marshal what is known to solve the unknown. Therefore, it is
important to activate useful background knowledge when figuring out how to do something less familiar” (p. 370).
Imagine Language & Literacy provides a variety of oral reading fluency practice, including record-listen-
rerecord activities. The digital books with modeled oral readings allow for several different types of oral reading
practice. Students can participate in:
• Shared reading: A group of students first follow along in their digital books, listening while the narrator
reads aloud. Then students take turns reading parts of the story aloud.
• Echo reading: Students can listen to the modeled reading, then read the text aloud independently
while recording their own voices. They can then listen to both their recording and the modeled reading,
and compare the two. This helps them to self-correct, and they can record a second time if desired.
Recordings are saved in the Student Portfolio for teacher review.
• Repeated oral reading: Students read a digital book multiple times: (1) reading along with the modeled
oral reading; (2) identifying and reading the new words on each page; and (3) reading the entire
book aloud while recording, then playing back their recording. Students are encouraged to listen and
rerecord specific passages as many times as they like, until they are satisfied that they are reading the
book fluently. To accommodate a range of learners, these passages are scaffolded with definitions,
pronunciations, context, and reading strategies.
In offline Reteaching lessons, suggestions are given for a variety of reading strategies to improve fluency,
including choral reading and partner (paired) reading.
To improve students’ reading rate, students engage in Fluent Reader activities—regular, timed oral readings that
measure the number of words read correctly in one minute. Teachers can easily save and document fluency growth
across the school year using the Student Portfolio. The saved oral readings can also be shared with parents.
Reading Comprehension
The RAND Reading Study Group defines reading comprehension as “the process of simultaneously extracting
and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language” (Snow, 2002, p. 11). Based
on Scarborough’s review of research on the relationship between early language and literacy development and
later reading abilities, she concludes that the ability to comprehend the meaning of a text requires readers to have
strong foundational literacy skills plus strong strategic language comprehension skills (background knowledge,
vocabulary knowledge, language structures, verbal reasoning, and literacy knowledge), and they must be able
to execute and coordinate these skills fluently (Scarborough, 2001). Research on foundational skills, vocabulary,
and language structures was addressed previously in this paper (see the sections on Phonological Awareness,
Phonics and Decoding, Oral Language and Vocabulary, and Fluency). Research on other aspects of reading
comprehension is summarized in this section.
Background Knowledge
In their synthesis of research from cognitive psychology, child development, learning and transfer, neuroscience,
and other fields, the authors of How People Learn (2020) found that to process information, students need to
connect new information and skills with preexisting experience and knowledge (National Research Council,
2000). However, in a review of research on “intentional instruction,” Fisher et al. (2011) note that when students
face a new, unfamiliar task, they are often unable to “marshal what is known to solve the unknown. Therefore, it is
important to activate useful background knowledge when figuring out how to do something less familiar” (p. 370).
20How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Text Structure
Research has firmly established that instruction focused on text genres and their underlying text structures
improves reading comprehension and recall from texts (Duke et al., 2011; Shanahan et al., 2010). Key
“elements of structure” in narrative texts include characters, setting, characters’ goals, problem or conflict,
plot or action, resolution, and theme(s) (Duke et al., 2011, p. 69). Important structures of informational texts
include description, sequence, compare and contrast, problem and solution, and cause and effect. Based on its
review of research on how to improve reading comprehension in the early elementary grades, a What Works
Clearinghouse panel recommended teaching students “to recognize how a text is structured” in both narrative
and informational texts, noting that because “authors structure texts in a variety of ways to get their point across
... [r]ecognizing text structure can build students’ understanding of what they are reading and improve their
ability to recall it” (Shanahan et al., 2010, p. 7).
Comprehension Strategies
The National Reading Panel analyzed more than 200 studies on text comprehension instruction and found that
teaching students comprehension monitoring skills is effective in improving comprehension (NICHD, 2000).
Other research-based comprehension strategies found to be effective by the National Reading Panel include the
use of graphic organizers to represent visually “the meanings and relationships of the ideas” in a text, answering
teacher-posed questions and receiving informative feedback, summarizing main ideas, and readers generating
and answering their own questions about the text (e.g., “what, when, where, why, what will happen, how, and
who”) (pp. 4-6, 4-44–4-46; see also Duke et al., 2011).
Regarding reader self-questioning, Mostow and Chen (2009) note, “Good questions help the reader infer and
retain the meaning of the text” (p. 465). Self-questioning also helps students “develop a deep understanding”
of what they read, apply “learned knowledge/skills to new problems and situations,” “connect newly acquired
information to prior knowledge,” improve confidence in the subject matter, and develop a positive attitude toward
learning (Yu & Wu, 2020, p. 3).
Duke et al. (2011) also identify “making inferences” as a research-based strategy “worth teaching” (p. 64).
These researchers, and the National Reading Panel, all recommend providing reading experiences that require
application of multiple comprehension strategies (Duke et al., 2011; NICHD, 2000).
As students progress through elementary school, they are presented with increasingly complex texts—that
is, texts that contain increasingly dense information, intricate text structures, abstract concepts, unfamiliar
vocabulary, multiple meanings, and complex sentence structures. Literacy researchers and experts Fisher and
Frey (2018) suggest that text-dependent questions—questions that require students to provide evidence from
the text as part of their responses—serve as scaffolds to help students engage in close reading of complex texts
for better comprehension.
Verbal Reasoning
Readers need strong verbal reasoning skills—the ability to make inferences—which enable “reading between the lines”
when ideas are not explicitly stated in a text (Scarborough, 2001, p. 98). Students need to be taught how to make local
inferences about information integrated from “separate propositions” within the text and global inferences that require
the reader to connect ideas “distributed throughout the text” that draw on information and background knowledge that
is external to the text (Currie & Cain, 2015, p. 58). Inferential skills include understanding the relationship between
pronouns and nouns, making “lexical connections" among “synonyms or words of similar meaning,” making logical
connections involving conjunctions, and identifying causal links between ideas or actions in order to comprehend text.
When reading fiction, inferential skills include filling in gaps to interpret character motives, character traits and feelings,
aspects of the setting, cause and effect relationships, and themes (Brown & Dewitz, 2014, pp. 70, 129-133).
Text Structure
Research has firmly established that instruction focused on text genres and their underlying text structures
improves reading comprehension and recall from texts (Duke et al., 2011; Shanahan et al., 2010). Key
“elements of structure” in narrative texts include characters, setting, characters’ goals, problem or conflict,
plot or action, resolution, and theme(s) (Duke et al., 2011, p. 69). Important structures of informational texts
include description, sequence, compare and contrast, problem and solution, and cause and effect. Based on its
review of research on how to improve reading comprehension in the early elementary grades, a What Works
Clearinghouse panel recommended teaching students “to recognize how a text is structured” in both narrative
and informational texts, noting that because “authors structure texts in a variety of ways to get their point across
... [r]ecognizing text structure can build students’ understanding of what they are reading and improve their
ability to recall it” (Shanahan et al., 2010, p. 7).
Comprehension Strategies
The National Reading Panel analyzed more than 200 studies on text comprehension instruction and found that
teaching students comprehension monitoring skills is effective in improving comprehension (NICHD, 2000).
Other research-based comprehension strategies found to be effective by the National Reading Panel include the
use of graphic organizers to represent visually “the meanings and relationships of the ideas” in a text, answering
teacher-posed questions and receiving informative feedback, summarizing main ideas, and readers generating
and answering their own questions about the text (e.g., “what, when, where, why, what will happen, how, and
who”) (pp. 4-6, 4-44–4-46; see also Duke et al., 2011).
Regarding reader self-questioning, Mostow and Chen (2009) note, “Good questions help the reader infer and
retain the meaning of the text” (p. 465). Self-questioning also helps students “develop a deep understanding”
of what they read, apply “learned knowledge/skills to new problems and situations,” “connect newly acquired
information to prior knowledge,” improve confidence in the subject matter, and develop a positive attitude toward
learning (Yu & Wu, 2020, p. 3).
Duke et al. (2011) also identify “making inferences” as a research-based strategy “worth teaching” (p. 64).
These researchers, and the National Reading Panel, all recommend providing reading experiences that require
application of multiple comprehension strategies (Duke et al., 2011; NICHD, 2000).
As students progress through elementary school, they are presented with increasingly complex texts—that
is, texts that contain increasingly dense information, intricate text structures, abstract concepts, unfamiliar
vocabulary, multiple meanings, and complex sentence structures. Literacy researchers and experts Fisher and
Frey (2018) suggest that text-dependent questions—questions that require students to provide evidence from
the text as part of their responses—serve as scaffolds to help students engage in close reading of complex texts
for better comprehension.
Verbal Reasoning
Readers need strong verbal reasoning skills—the ability to make inferences—which enable “reading between the lines”
when ideas are not explicitly stated in a text (Scarborough, 2001, p. 98). Students need to be taught how to make local
inferences about information integrated from “separate propositions” within the text and global inferences that require
the reader to connect ideas “distributed throughout the text” that draw on information and background knowledge that
is external to the text (Currie & Cain, 2015, p. 58). Inferential skills include understanding the relationship between
pronouns and nouns, making “lexical connections" among “synonyms or words of similar meaning,” making logical
connections involving conjunctions, and identifying causal links between ideas or actions in order to comprehend text.
When reading fiction, inferential skills include filling in gaps to interpret character motives, character traits and feelings,
aspects of the setting, cause and effect relationships, and themes (Brown & Dewitz, 2014, pp. 70, 129-133).
21How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
How Imagine Language & Literacy Provides Research-Based Reading Comprehension Instruction
In Imagine Language & Literacy, explicit comprehension instruction is always provided in the context of
reading online books and texts appropriate to students’ grade and reading level. These readings give students
experience with a diverse array of literary genres and with important topics across the curriculum that relate to
academic vocabulary and language.
Students in PreK–2 start with Read-Along books—interactive, digital books that invite students to read along with
a narrator and click to explore the illustrations and targeted vocabulary words. As primary students gain reading
experience with digital books, they progress to Beginning decodable books they can listen to and read on their
own, with questions that build strategies needed for literal and inferential comprehension. In these early grades,
the program simultaneously provides critical foundational literacy instruction (phonological awareness, phonics and
decoding, and fluency), while also supporting targeted vocabulary development and comprehension skill building.
Second-grade students read Transition books that serve as a bridge to Leveled books, which provide teachers with
Lexile levels to ensure that each student can work at the appropriate reading level. In grades 3–6, students continue
to read Leveled books, in addition to text passages and Associated Press news articles.
Imagine Language & Literacy builds background knowledge as students
read online books and texts. The Read-Along, Beginning, and Transition
books introduce concepts, ideas, experiences, and related vocabulary that
some students might not have encountered in their own lives. When students
progress to the Leveled books, text passages, and news articles, the program
builds background knowledge by pairing texts. The first text activates and
builds students’ background knowledge about a topic they will read in the
second text in the pair. As students read the second text, they apply the
background knowledge developed in the first text.
For example, in The Record Breakers, students hear definitions and learn
about how to read the rows and columns in a table. Then, in Picture This,
students read about how to organize data in a table, pie chart, or bar graph.
Each of the paired texts includes a graphic organizer or response journal
that stimulates students to make connections between prior knowledge
and new concepts. Before and during readings, think-alouds help students
develop mental models that link new knowledge to what is known. For
example, before reading a book, the title, author, illustrator, and cover are
introduced. Then, a video presents a peer mentor showing how to use the
title, cover, and self-questioning to make predictions and engage with what
is already known.
Imagine Language & Literacy provides explicit instruction on various text
genres, their underlying text structures, and how to use this knowledge as
an aid to comprehension. Students learn that authors create text with a
particular purpose in mind and learn to distinguish two broad categories of
text: literature and informational texts.
In activities such as Text Types, students explore different text types and learn
about their common sets of features and conventions. Peer-modeling videos
illustrate how each text type is used for a particular purpose. Literary text types
include poetry, dramatic plays, fiction, fables, folk tales, and myths. Informational
text types include biographies, news articles, and other forms of expository writing.
Text Types
The Record Breakers
Picture This
How Imagine Language & Literacy Provides Research-Based Reading Comprehension Instruction
In Imagine Language & Literacy, explicit comprehension instruction is always provided in the context of
reading online books and texts appropriate to students’ grade and reading level. These readings give students
experience with a diverse array of literary genres and with important topics across the curriculum that relate to
academic vocabulary and language.
Students in PreK–2 start with Read-Along books—interactive, digital books that invite students to read along with
a narrator and click to explore the illustrations and targeted vocabulary words. As primary students gain reading
experience with digital books, they progress to Beginning decodable books they can listen to and read on their
own, with questions that build strategies needed for literal and inferential comprehension. In these early grades,
the program simultaneously provides critical foundational literacy instruction (phonological awareness, phonics and
decoding, and fluency), while also supporting targeted vocabulary development and comprehension skill building.
Second-grade students read Transition books that serve as a bridge to Leveled books, which provide teachers with
Lexile levels to ensure that each student can work at the appropriate reading level. In grades 3–6, students continue
to read Leveled books, in addition to text passages and Associated Press news articles.
Imagine Language & Literacy builds background knowledge as students
read online books and texts. The Read-Along, Beginning, and Transition
books introduce concepts, ideas, experiences, and related vocabulary that
some students might not have encountered in their own lives. When students
progress to the Leveled books, text passages, and news articles, the program
builds background knowledge by pairing texts. The first text activates and
builds students’ background knowledge about a topic they will read in the
second text in the pair. As students read the second text, they apply the
background knowledge developed in the first text.
For example, in The Record Breakers, students hear definitions and learn
about how to read the rows and columns in a table. Then, in Picture This,
students read about how to organize data in a table, pie chart, or bar graph.
Each of the paired texts includes a graphic organizer or response journal
that stimulates students to make connections between prior knowledge
and new concepts. Before and during readings, think-alouds help students
develop mental models that link new knowledge to what is known. For
example, before reading a book, the title, author, illustrator, and cover are
introduced. Then, a video presents a peer mentor showing how to use the
title, cover, and self-questioning to make predictions and engage with what
is already known.
Imagine Language & Literacy provides explicit instruction on various text
genres, their underlying text structures, and how to use this knowledge as
an aid to comprehension. Students learn that authors create text with a
particular purpose in mind and learn to distinguish two broad categories of
text: literature and informational texts.
In activities such as Text Types, students explore different text types and learn
about their common sets of features and conventions. Peer-modeling videos
illustrate how each text type is used for a particular purpose. Literary text types
include poetry, dramatic plays, fiction, fables, folk tales, and myths. Informational
text types include biographies, news articles, and other forms of expository writing.
Text Types
The Record Breakers
Picture This
22How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Students practice using these structural features and conventions of text types to help them understand the
author’s purpose and to make use of the structure to comprehend and learn new information from the text. In
the context of reading an informational text, students learn how to use the table of contents, headings, graphs,
diagrams, illustrations, charts, and glossaries to learn about the topic. Students are also coached to look for
words that signal various informational text structures, including description, sequence or chronological order,
comparison, cause and effect, and problem and solution.
For example, in Special Effects, students learn that writers sometimes
organize their texts to explain a cause and its effect. Using the signal words
cause and as a result, students learn that the Dust Bowl was caused by a
lack of rain, which made farmers’ land very dry. As a result of the dry land,
farmers lost their land.
Students also explore features of literary and narrative texts, including story
elements, characterization, conflict, theme, voice, figurative language, and
poetic structure. After learning about these features, they apply them as
they read Beginning books, Transition books, and Leveled books; answer
comprehension questions; and use graphic organizers.
Imagine Language & Literacy explicitly teaches students a variety of
comprehension strategies and provides opportunities to apply these when
listening to or reading texts. For emergent readers, the program uses Read-
Along books to refine their listening comprehension. Students in the primary
grades are taught strategies used by active listeners, then listen to the audio
and follow along while a Read-Along book is read to them. After hearing the
text read aloud, students are asked questions about what they learned from
the book and are prompted to retell orally what the text said.
As students progress to reading online books on their own, they learn and practice general comprehension strategies
and specific strategies most applicable to either literary or informational texts.
General comprehension strategies include:
• Prereading strategies, including previewing the text, accessing prior knowledge, formulating questions,
clarifying understanding, setting a purpose, and making predictions.
• During-reading strategies, including visualizing, making connections, monitoring understanding, making
logical inferences from details, rereading, questioning, and summarizing. Students learn how to identify
and answer text-dependent literal and inferential questions as they read texts. They also learn to generate
their own questions about the material they are reading. For example, students are taught to ask who,
what, why, and when questions. As they continue to interact with texts, they are asked to summarize,
clarify understanding, explain concepts, and elaborate.
• After-reading strategies, including comparing, synthesizing, and drawing conclusions.
• Close reading is a structured process that requires students to read passages three times. During the first read,
students focus on gaining a general understanding of the text. They read a second time to examine the text’s
language and structure. In the third read, students make inferences, craft opinions and arguments, and make
intertextual connections.
Special Effects
Story Map
Students practice using these structural features and conventions of text types to help them understand the
author’s purpose and to make use of the structure to comprehend and learn new information from the text. In
the context of reading an informational text, students learn how to use the table of contents, headings, graphs,
diagrams, illustrations, charts, and glossaries to learn about the topic. Students are also coached to look for
words that signal various informational text structures, including description, sequence or chronological order,
comparison, cause and effect, and problem and solution.
For example, in Special Effects, students learn that writers sometimes
organize their texts to explain a cause and its effect. Using the signal words
cause and as a result, students learn that the Dust Bowl was caused by a
lack of rain, which made farmers’ land very dry. As a result of the dry land,
farmers lost their land.
Students also explore features of literary and narrative texts, including story
elements, characterization, conflict, theme, voice, figurative language, and
poetic structure. After learning about these features, they apply them as
they read Beginning books, Transition books, and Leveled books; answer
comprehension questions; and use graphic organizers.
Imagine Language & Literacy explicitly teaches students a variety of
comprehension strategies and provides opportunities to apply these when
listening to or reading texts. For emergent readers, the program uses Read-
Along books to refine their listening comprehension. Students in the primary
grades are taught strategies used by active listeners, then listen to the audio
and follow along while a Read-Along book is read to them. After hearing the
text read aloud, students are asked questions about what they learned from
the book and are prompted to retell orally what the text said.
As students progress to reading online books on their own, they learn and practice general comprehension strategies
and specific strategies most applicable to either literary or informational texts.
General comprehension strategies include:
• Prereading strategies, including previewing the text, accessing prior knowledge, formulating questions,
clarifying understanding, setting a purpose, and making predictions.
• During-reading strategies, including visualizing, making connections, monitoring understanding, making
logical inferences from details, rereading, questioning, and summarizing. Students learn how to identify
and answer text-dependent literal and inferential questions as they read texts. They also learn to generate
their own questions about the material they are reading. For example, students are taught to ask who,
what, why, and when questions. As they continue to interact with texts, they are asked to summarize,
clarify understanding, explain concepts, and elaborate.
• After-reading strategies, including comparing, synthesizing, and drawing conclusions.
• Close reading is a structured process that requires students to read passages three times. During the first read,
students focus on gaining a general understanding of the text. They read a second time to examine the text’s
language and structure. In the third read, students make inferences, craft opinions and arguments, and make
intertextual connections.
Special Effects
Story Map
23How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
• Citing textual evidence coaches students to return to the text to find
support for their answer. Students learn that to convince someone of
their point, they need to gather evidence. A peer-modeling video teaches
students about different types of evidence and how to gather it.
Then, through a gradual release model, students are taught to apply
what they have learned when reading a text. For example, in a narrative
about a missing cookie, students cite and evaluate evidence to
determine which character was likely to have eaten the cookie.
• Using graphic organizers helps students organize their thinking and
visually represent the meanings and relationships of the ideas in texts.
• Paraphrasing and summarizing: All leveled texts culminate in the Application Station writing activity,
which provides students with opportunities to paraphrase or summarize key ideas in texts. Students use
checklists to make sure they are using evidence to inform their answers.
Comprehension strategies for reading literature include:
• Determining themes: Students learn that the theme of a passage is
the underlying message of the story. To identify the theme, students
learn to track how the plot develops, what the conflict is, how the
characters react to the conflict, and how that reflects the author’s
viewpoint. For example, students read the fable The Ant and the
Grasshopper. The ant in the story prepares for winter by storing up
food while the grasshopper just plays. However, when winter arrives
the grasshopper runs out of food. The grasshopper sees the ant, who
has enough food, and realizes he should have prepared for winter
instead of playing. Students deduce the theme—that delayed gratification leads to long-term gain.
• Analyzing figurative language: Students learn about various types of figurative language, including
metaphors and similes. Students learn the literal meaning of a sentence and its figurative meaning, and
learn to make connections between the two. Through a gradual release model, students are guided as
they apply the concepts to text and then engage in independent practice.
• Analyzing individuals and events over time: Throughout Imagine Language & Literacy lessons,
students analyze individuals and events over time through text-dependent questions and graphic
organizers. Time lines, flow charts, and sequence graphics track the sequence of events in a story, as
well as causes and effects, and help students understand how the events developed over time.
Comprehension strategies for reading informational texts include:
• Determining the main idea: Imagine Language & Literacy offers multiple digital lessons, interactive
activities, printable reteaching lessons, and graphic organizers to teach students how to determine the
main idea of a text. Students learn a three-step process for understanding main ideas and details. First,
students learn to identify the topic by asking what the text is about. Then, they learn how to identify what
the author is saying about the topic. Finally, students identify details that support the text’s main idea.
• Summarizing events and procedures: Students learn to analyze various informational text structures.
Peer-modeling videos teach students to identify and summarize the key ideas and details of a nonfiction
text. The videos also explain how to ignore trivial or redundant information, how to prioritize the most
important steps in a procedure, and how to select a topic sentence or write one if it does not exist.
Determining Themes
Citing Textual Evidence
• Citing textual evidence coaches students to return to the text to find
support for their answer. Students learn that to convince someone of
their point, they need to gather evidence. A peer-modeling video teaches
students about different types of evidence and how to gather it.
Then, through a gradual release model, students are taught to apply
what they have learned when reading a text. For example, in a narrative
about a missing cookie, students cite and evaluate evidence to
determine which character was likely to have eaten the cookie.
• Using graphic organizers helps students organize their thinking and
visually represent the meanings and relationships of the ideas in texts.
• Paraphrasing and summarizing: All leveled texts culminate in the Application Station writing activity,
which provides students with opportunities to paraphrase or summarize key ideas in texts. Students use
checklists to make sure they are using evidence to inform their answers.
Comprehension strategies for reading literature include:
• Determining themes: Students learn that the theme of a passage is
the underlying message of the story. To identify the theme, students
learn to track how the plot develops, what the conflict is, how the
characters react to the conflict, and how that reflects the author’s
viewpoint. For example, students read the fable The Ant and the
Grasshopper. The ant in the story prepares for winter by storing up
food while the grasshopper just plays. However, when winter arrives
the grasshopper runs out of food. The grasshopper sees the ant, who
has enough food, and realizes he should have prepared for winter
instead of playing. Students deduce the theme—that delayed gratification leads to long-term gain.
• Analyzing figurative language: Students learn about various types of figurative language, including
metaphors and similes. Students learn the literal meaning of a sentence and its figurative meaning, and
learn to make connections between the two. Through a gradual release model, students are guided as
they apply the concepts to text and then engage in independent practice.
• Analyzing individuals and events over time: Throughout Imagine Language & Literacy lessons,
students analyze individuals and events over time through text-dependent questions and graphic
organizers. Time lines, flow charts, and sequence graphics track the sequence of events in a story, as
well as causes and effects, and help students understand how the events developed over time.
Comprehension strategies for reading informational texts include:
• Determining the main idea: Imagine Language & Literacy offers multiple digital lessons, interactive
activities, printable reteaching lessons, and graphic organizers to teach students how to determine the
main idea of a text. Students learn a three-step process for understanding main ideas and details. First,
students learn to identify the topic by asking what the text is about. Then, they learn how to identify what
the author is saying about the topic. Finally, students identify details that support the text’s main idea.
• Summarizing events and procedures: Students learn to analyze various informational text structures.
Peer-modeling videos teach students to identify and summarize the key ideas and details of a nonfiction
text. The videos also explain how to ignore trivial or redundant information, how to prioritize the most
important steps in a procedure, and how to select a topic sentence or write one if it does not exist.
Determining Themes
Citing Textual Evidence
24How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
• Identifying claims, reasons, and evidence: Digital and offline materials teach students the basic
components of an argument: claims, reasons, and evidence. Peer-modeling videos explain that claims
are potentially arguable statements that answer the question, “What do I think?” Reasons are statements
of support for claims that answer the question, “Why do I think this?” Evidence supports the reasons
offered and helps compel audiences to accept the claims. Students practice identifying the words,
phrases, and sentences that seem to highlight the author’s central message, then identify patterns of
evidence to determine and evaluate claims.
• Comparing and contrasting texts: Students are taught to compare informational texts by expressing similarities
and differences in T-charts, Venn diagrams, and open written responses.
• Integrating information from multiple media sources: Imagine
Language & Literacy offers multiple representations of content across
a variety of media formats, including peer-modeled video, audio,
technology-enhanced interactions, graphic organizers, and print. For
example, students learn about scientists and scientific experiments
described in a peer-modeled video. Next, they engage with the same
concepts in online, interactive practice. Finally, they read an offline
article about Sir Isaac Newton and use a graphic organizer to track his
scientific experiments and summarize the article.
After integrating the information from the various sources, students
are asked to evaluate the different formats.
Imagine Language & Literacy develops verbal reasoning skills that
enable students to comprehend texts that require going beyond
the literal meaning of the words. Students learn to apply a variety of
inferential reasoning skills when reading texts for meaning, including:
• Inferring implied information not explicitly stated: Peer-modeling
videos teach students to use background knowledge and clues from
the text to make sense of what an author implies rather than explicitly
states. For example, in literary texts, they learn how to consider text
details in combination with what they already know about a topic to
make inferences about character motives, character traits, settings,
and themes.
• Inferring the meaning of unfamiliar words: Students learn to use
available linguistic cues as well as facts stated in a text to uncover the
meaning of unfamiliar words.
• Local inferences: Students practice making local inferences based
on analysis of individual sentences. For example, in Newsbreak,
students read a news article about a cat who was accidentally sold
with a mattress set. They read the sentence, “Dufek wrote that Camo
[the cat] was 2 pounds lighter after 10 days outside.” They infer that
the cat must have lost weight because it did not have access to food.
The lack of access to food must have made the cat’s time alone
difficult. Students also answer inferential questions in Understand What I Read. They are prompted to
think about what they already know in combination with what they are reading in Beginning Books and
Leveled Books.
Peer-Modeled Video
Interactive Practice
Article and Graphic Organizer
• Identifying claims, reasons, and evidence: Digital and offline materials teach students the basic
components of an argument: claims, reasons, and evidence. Peer-modeling videos explain that claims
are potentially arguable statements that answer the question, “What do I think?” Reasons are statements
of support for claims that answer the question, “Why do I think this?” Evidence supports the reasons
offered and helps compel audiences to accept the claims. Students practice identifying the words,
phrases, and sentences that seem to highlight the author’s central message, then identify patterns of
evidence to determine and evaluate claims.
• Comparing and contrasting texts: Students are taught to compare informational texts by expressing similarities
and differences in T-charts, Venn diagrams, and open written responses.
• Integrating information from multiple media sources: Imagine
Language & Literacy offers multiple representations of content across
a variety of media formats, including peer-modeled video, audio,
technology-enhanced interactions, graphic organizers, and print. For
example, students learn about scientists and scientific experiments
described in a peer-modeled video. Next, they engage with the same
concepts in online, interactive practice. Finally, they read an offline
article about Sir Isaac Newton and use a graphic organizer to track his
scientific experiments and summarize the article.
After integrating the information from the various sources, students
are asked to evaluate the different formats.
Imagine Language & Literacy develops verbal reasoning skills that
enable students to comprehend texts that require going beyond
the literal meaning of the words. Students learn to apply a variety of
inferential reasoning skills when reading texts for meaning, including:
• Inferring implied information not explicitly stated: Peer-modeling
videos teach students to use background knowledge and clues from
the text to make sense of what an author implies rather than explicitly
states. For example, in literary texts, they learn how to consider text
details in combination with what they already know about a topic to
make inferences about character motives, character traits, settings,
and themes.
• Inferring the meaning of unfamiliar words: Students learn to use
available linguistic cues as well as facts stated in a text to uncover the
meaning of unfamiliar words.
• Local inferences: Students practice making local inferences based
on analysis of individual sentences. For example, in Newsbreak,
students read a news article about a cat who was accidentally sold
with a mattress set. They read the sentence, “Dufek wrote that Camo
[the cat] was 2 pounds lighter after 10 days outside.” They infer that
the cat must have lost weight because it did not have access to food.
The lack of access to food must have made the cat’s time alone
difficult. Students also answer inferential questions in Understand What I Read. They are prompted to
think about what they already know in combination with what they are reading in Beginning Books and
Leveled Books.
Peer-Modeled Video
Interactive Practice
Article and Graphic Organizer
25How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
• Global inferences: Students are taught to make global inferences based on ideas expressed in different
sentences or passages in a text. For example, in one lesson, a book states across several sentences that
firefighters must use huge hoses filled with water and move fallen trees to put out forest fires. Since huge
hoses and fallen trees are heavy, students can infer that firefighters must lift heavy things.
• Inferring pronoun references: Students learn that subject pronouns (I, we, you, he, she, it, they) and
object pronouns (me, us, you, him, her, it, them) refer to people, places, things, and ideas and take the
place of a noun. They also learn to use text evidence to make connections between pronouns and nouns.
• Using synonyms to make inferences: Students learn synonyms for already familiar words and use this
knowledge to infer how information from different sentences in a text is connected.
• Using conjunctions to make inferences: Students learn that conjunctions connect a word to other words,
connect a clause to another clause, connect a sentence to another sentence, or connect a paragraph to
another paragraph. Students learn that some conjunctions help readers understand the sequence of events
in a text (e.g., then, before, when, while, since, once, as soon as, by the time). Other conjunctions convey
that one phrase or clause gives the reason or purpose of another phrase or clause (e.g., as, since, because,
so). Still other conjunctions indicate contrasting statements (e.g., but, however, whereas, although). Students
are taught to start with a sentence containing a conjunction and deconstruct it.
• Global inferences: Students are taught to make global inferences based on ideas expressed in different
sentences or passages in a text. For example, in one lesson, a book states across several sentences that
firefighters must use huge hoses filled with water and move fallen trees to put out forest fires. Since huge
hoses and fallen trees are heavy, students can infer that firefighters must lift heavy things.
• Inferring pronoun references: Students learn that subject pronouns (I, we, you, he, she, it, they) and
object pronouns (me, us, you, him, her, it, them) refer to people, places, things, and ideas and take the
place of a noun. They also learn to use text evidence to make connections between pronouns and nouns.
• Using synonyms to make inferences: Students learn synonyms for already familiar words and use this
knowledge to infer how information from different sentences in a text is connected.
• Using conjunctions to make inferences: Students learn that conjunctions connect a word to other words,
connect a clause to another clause, connect a sentence to another sentence, or connect a paragraph to
another paragraph. Students learn that some conjunctions help readers understand the sequence of events
in a text (e.g., then, before, when, while, since, once, as soon as, by the time). Other conjunctions convey
that one phrase or clause gives the reason or purpose of another phrase or clause (e.g., as, since, because,
so). Still other conjunctions indicate contrasting statements (e.g., but, however, whereas, although). Students
are taught to start with a sentence containing a conjunction and deconstruct it.
26How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Principle 2: Offer multisensory instruction
that meets the needs of diverse learners and
engages and motivates all students.
Multisensory Instruction
Multisensory instruction teaches students by using two or more sensory pathways (e.g., sight, hearing,
movement, touch). In their review of research and expert literature on structured literacy instruction, Farrell and
White (2018) cite interdisciplinary evidence in support of instruction that integrates phonemic, graphemic, and
morphemic knowledge—that is, multisensory instruction that “simultaneously associates auditory, visual and
kinesthetic-motor ... modalities” (pp. 58-59). Allen and Neuhaus (2018) reviewed research on multisensory
reading instruction that found it to be “significantly more effective than traditional instruction for teaching
phonological awareness, decoding skills, and reading comprehension” (p. 180).
Additional support for multisensory instruction comes from research from the Center for Applied Special
Technology (CAST, 2011), which shows that “learners differ in the ways that they perceive and comprehend
information that is presented to them” (p. 14). Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is an evidence-based
framework for creating flexible instructional materials and assessments that address students with varying
learning needs. UDL reduces barriers for all students by representing instructional information in different ways
(e.g., not just relying on a single sense, illustrating concepts using multiple media) and offering students multiple
ways of expressing what they know (CAST, 2011).
Motivation and Gamification
Research has linked student motivation to learn to better academic performance, “greater conceptual
understanding,” higher levels of “satisfaction with school,” and greater self-esteem, compared to students who
are unmotivated (Usher & Kober, 2012, p. 1). A Center on Education Policy review of the research literature
on students’ motivation to learn suggests that there are four contributing factors: a sense of competence to
complete the learning task at hand; feeling that they are in control and have some autonomy over choices
related to the task; tasks are perceived as interesting, relevant, or valuable to students; and activities strengthen
their sense of relatedness to others in their social group (Usher & Kober, 2012, pp., 1, 8-9). The UDL framework
recommends offering multiple ways of keeping students “engaged and motivated to learn” (CAST, 2011, p. 5).
A 2020 systematic review of empirical evidence on gamification by Zainuddin et al. (2020) found that “game-
based elements such as badges, points, trophies, leader boards, avatars, and virtual gifts not only promote
students’ extrinsic motivation but also increase intrinsic value for learning.” This is important because “an
intrinsically motivated student is more likely to engage in depth with the materials and the learning process”
(Zainuddin et al., 2020, p. 13).
How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns with Research on Multisensory Instruction, Motivation,
and Gamification
Imagine Language & Literacy takes strong advantage of multiple media to provide rich, multisensory
learning experiences. Instruction and practice activities feature high-quality videos, animations, illustrations,
voices, music and songs, and sound effects. Lessons also include manual signing, motor cueing, auditory
attention activities, kinesthetic activities, visual matching, writing, and rhymes.
Principle 2: Offer multisensory instruction
that meets the needs of diverse learners and
engages and motivates all students.
Multisensory Instruction
Multisensory instruction teaches students by using two or more sensory pathways (e.g., sight, hearing,
movement, touch). In their review of research and expert literature on structured literacy instruction, Farrell and
White (2018) cite interdisciplinary evidence in support of instruction that integrates phonemic, graphemic, and
morphemic knowledge—that is, multisensory instruction that “simultaneously associates auditory, visual and
kinesthetic-motor ... modalities” (pp. 58-59). Allen and Neuhaus (2018) reviewed research on multisensory
reading instruction that found it to be “significantly more effective than traditional instruction for teaching
phonological awareness, decoding skills, and reading comprehension” (p. 180).
Additional support for multisensory instruction comes from research from the Center for Applied Special
Technology (CAST, 2011), which shows that “learners differ in the ways that they perceive and comprehend
information that is presented to them” (p. 14). Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is an evidence-based
framework for creating flexible instructional materials and assessments that address students with varying
learning needs. UDL reduces barriers for all students by representing instructional information in different ways
(e.g., not just relying on a single sense, illustrating concepts using multiple media) and offering students multiple
ways of expressing what they know (CAST, 2011).
Motivation and Gamification
Research has linked student motivation to learn to better academic performance, “greater conceptual
understanding,” higher levels of “satisfaction with school,” and greater self-esteem, compared to students who
are unmotivated (Usher & Kober, 2012, p. 1). A Center on Education Policy review of the research literature
on students’ motivation to learn suggests that there are four contributing factors: a sense of competence to
complete the learning task at hand; feeling that they are in control and have some autonomy over choices
related to the task; tasks are perceived as interesting, relevant, or valuable to students; and activities strengthen
their sense of relatedness to others in their social group (Usher & Kober, 2012, pp., 1, 8-9). The UDL framework
recommends offering multiple ways of keeping students “engaged and motivated to learn” (CAST, 2011, p. 5).
A 2020 systematic review of empirical evidence on gamification by Zainuddin et al. (2020) found that “game-
based elements such as badges, points, trophies, leader boards, avatars, and virtual gifts not only promote
students’ extrinsic motivation but also increase intrinsic value for learning.” This is important because “an
intrinsically motivated student is more likely to engage in depth with the materials and the learning process”
(Zainuddin et al., 2020, p. 13).
How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns with Research on Multisensory Instruction, Motivation,
and Gamification
Imagine Language & Literacy takes strong advantage of multiple media to provide rich, multisensory
learning experiences. Instruction and practice activities feature high-quality videos, animations, illustrations,
voices, music and songs, and sound effects. Lessons also include manual signing, motor cueing, auditory
attention activities, kinesthetic activities, visual matching, writing, and rhymes.
27How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Examples of the program’s multisensory approach include the following:
• When practicing phoneme segmentation, students engage in the task of making toys. They stretch plastic
clay to mimic stretching out a word to hear the sounds.
• In the Print Concepts lessons, expansion activities encourage students to use sidewalk chalk, sandpaper
letters, or a writing sandbox to practice writing letters.
• In Grammar, Vocabulary and Spelling reteaching lessons, students use game boards with spinners,
sentence strips, matching cards and other game manipulatives.
• Reteaching lessons for Speaking and Listening ask students to use puppets.
• In a lesson on prepositions, students learn about positional prepositions and phrases (e.g., on, in front
of, under, across). Then students are directed to compare sentences with prepositions to pictures
representing the sentences and indicate when there is a match or non-match. They learn more about
prepositions through graphic organizers, audio, and other interactive elements.
• In Learn to Recognize and Name Letter Sounds, students trace the target letter and say the letter sound.
They see the letter, hear the letter sound, see a picture that begins with the letter sound (e.g., an apple for
/ă/), then click on the letter. They also see the word apple with a highlighted, then click or point to the a.
• In Free the Aliens, students practice recognizing letters quickly to
build automaticity. They hear a letter name and must quickly click
the corresponding letter shown in various places on the game
board. The letter-recognition speed adjusts based on performance,
so the student is challenged without being overwhelmed.
• In Blaster, students practice recognizing high-frequency sight words
through an interactive multimedia game. They hear a word spoken and
maneuver a spaceship to blast the asteroid with the correct sight word
on it. This is a timed game with the goal of identifying the correct word
as quickly as possible, to build automatic word recognition.
• In Galactic Goals, students practice newly learned, advanced academic vocabulary through a game
with a space theme. They move their avatar around the screen to score space goals against another
galactic team before time runs out. Students can add more time to the game clock by choosing the
correct vocabulary word to complete a cloze sentence or by spelling the vocabulary word. If they answer
incorrectly, they see a video illustrating the word’s meaning. Students are also given video-based clues to
help them spell the word.
• In Affix Action, students learn that there are important word parts
called affixes that can be added to the beginning or the end of a
word. A strategy is outlined for attacking big words: (1) realize you
do not know the word; (2) chop the word into parts; (3) determine
what each part means; and (4) check the context. Students learn
about inflectional endings as well as affixes. As part of the Word
Chop activity, they then practice chopping off affixes from words with
multiple morphemes (e.g., for the word unhelpful, chopping off un
and learning its meaning, then chopping off ful and learning its meaning).
Free the Aliens
Affix Action
Examples of the program’s multisensory approach include the following:
• When practicing phoneme segmentation, students engage in the task of making toys. They stretch plastic
clay to mimic stretching out a word to hear the sounds.
• In the Print Concepts lessons, expansion activities encourage students to use sidewalk chalk, sandpaper
letters, or a writing sandbox to practice writing letters.
• In Grammar, Vocabulary and Spelling reteaching lessons, students use game boards with spinners,
sentence strips, matching cards and other game manipulatives.
• Reteaching lessons for Speaking and Listening ask students to use puppets.
• In a lesson on prepositions, students learn about positional prepositions and phrases (e.g., on, in front
of, under, across). Then students are directed to compare sentences with prepositions to pictures
representing the sentences and indicate when there is a match or non-match. They learn more about
prepositions through graphic organizers, audio, and other interactive elements.
• In Learn to Recognize and Name Letter Sounds, students trace the target letter and say the letter sound.
They see the letter, hear the letter sound, see a picture that begins with the letter sound (e.g., an apple for
/ă/), then click on the letter. They also see the word apple with a highlighted, then click or point to the a.
• In Free the Aliens, students practice recognizing letters quickly to
build automaticity. They hear a letter name and must quickly click
the corresponding letter shown in various places on the game
board. The letter-recognition speed adjusts based on performance,
so the student is challenged without being overwhelmed.
• In Blaster, students practice recognizing high-frequency sight words
through an interactive multimedia game. They hear a word spoken and
maneuver a spaceship to blast the asteroid with the correct sight word
on it. This is a timed game with the goal of identifying the correct word
as quickly as possible, to build automatic word recognition.
• In Galactic Goals, students practice newly learned, advanced academic vocabulary through a game
with a space theme. They move their avatar around the screen to score space goals against another
galactic team before time runs out. Students can add more time to the game clock by choosing the
correct vocabulary word to complete a cloze sentence or by spelling the vocabulary word. If they answer
incorrectly, they see a video illustrating the word’s meaning. Students are also given video-based clues to
help them spell the word.
• In Affix Action, students learn that there are important word parts
called affixes that can be added to the beginning or the end of a
word. A strategy is outlined for attacking big words: (1) realize you
do not know the word; (2) chop the word into parts; (3) determine
what each part means; and (4) check the context. Students learn
about inflectional endings as well as affixes. As part of the Word
Chop activity, they then practice chopping off affixes from words with
multiple morphemes (e.g., for the word unhelpful, chopping off un
and learning its meaning, then chopping off ful and learning its meaning).
Free the Aliens
Affix Action
28How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
The variety of ways in which concepts and skills are presented and practiced contributes to an
experience that is impactful for diverse learners, consistent with the Universal Design for Learning
framework. Multiple modes of representing information are provided in the same lesson (e.g., combinations of
video and audio, text and voice, text and illustrations). The meaning of new vocabulary and unfamiliar idioms
is often conveyed with pictures, in addition to text-based definitions and explanations. A wide range of graphic
organizers (e.g., concept maps, T-charts, Venn diagrams, sequential graphics, and time lines) are used to
highlight important ideas, compare and contrast concepts, represent relationships, depict chronology, and
illustrate cause and effect. Students are also offered a variety of ways to show what they know, with question
response formats that include multiple choice, essays and free-writing responses, annotation, voice recordings,
charts, graphic organizers, and virtual manipulatives.
Imagine Language & Literacy incorporates research-based design elements that contribute to students’
motivation and engagement. Thousands of interactive videos and animated activities deepen learning and
challenge students. Fast-paced content, peer-modeling videos, lively songs, multimedia, and game-based
practice activities make learning fun. The program also helps build students’ sense of their own competence by
providing strategic scaffolding and informative feedback that encourages persistence, resilience, and a learning
growth mindset. (For more detail, see Scaffolding in Instruction and Formative Feedback, later in this paper.)
In addition, Imagine Language & Literacy includes a game-like reward system to boost student
motivation and sense of ownership. Students who successfully answer questions can earn Booster Bits
(points) to spend on customizing their on-screen avatar, visiting exhibits and playing games in the Imagine
Museum, and leveling up to unlock new exhibits. Each visit to the Imagine Museum has a 90-second time limit
so it does not take too much time away from learning activities. The better students perform in the learning
activities, the faster they get to the Imagine Museum, and the more frequently they get to visit. A rewards screen
displays the students’ museum level, which is automatically updated.
Imagine Museum exhibits include:
• Character Builder, where students create and customize their own
avatar the first time they visit the museum and unlock this exhibit.
• Mazel Cannon (unlocked the first time students visit the museum), where
students see how far they can shoot a friendly character from a cannon.
• Monkey Business (unlocked at Level 7), where students
customize a habitat for a monkey character.
• Smoothie Operator (unlocked at Level 13), where students make a
smoothie for the monkey.
• Mazel Mine (unlocked at Level 13), where students customize a
character, a cart, and a roller coaster, then go for a ride.
Imagine Language & Literacy provides other means of engagement
that are in alignment with the Universal Design for Learning
framework. For example:
• Lessons make explicit connections between what students are learning and their experiences, making
clear the practical relevance of the lessons.
• Lessons begin by presenting instructional goals and outlining the knowledge and skills students will be
expected to demonstrate.
• On-screen instructors model self-reflection and self-regulation when one’s initial strategy is unsuccessful.
• In Application Station, students engage in writing activities and monitor their own understanding by
comparing their responses to a rubric.
Imagine Museum Exhibits
The variety of ways in which concepts and skills are presented and practiced contributes to an
experience that is impactful for diverse learners, consistent with the Universal Design for Learning
framework. Multiple modes of representing information are provided in the same lesson (e.g., combinations of
video and audio, text and voice, text and illustrations). The meaning of new vocabulary and unfamiliar idioms
is often conveyed with pictures, in addition to text-based definitions and explanations. A wide range of graphic
organizers (e.g., concept maps, T-charts, Venn diagrams, sequential graphics, and time lines) are used to
highlight important ideas, compare and contrast concepts, represent relationships, depict chronology, and
illustrate cause and effect. Students are also offered a variety of ways to show what they know, with question
response formats that include multiple choice, essays and free-writing responses, annotation, voice recordings,
charts, graphic organizers, and virtual manipulatives.
Imagine Language & Literacy incorporates research-based design elements that contribute to students’
motivation and engagement. Thousands of interactive videos and animated activities deepen learning and
challenge students. Fast-paced content, peer-modeling videos, lively songs, multimedia, and game-based
practice activities make learning fun. The program also helps build students’ sense of their own competence by
providing strategic scaffolding and informative feedback that encourages persistence, resilience, and a learning
growth mindset. (For more detail, see Scaffolding in Instruction and Formative Feedback, later in this paper.)
In addition, Imagine Language & Literacy includes a game-like reward system to boost student
motivation and sense of ownership. Students who successfully answer questions can earn Booster Bits
(points) to spend on customizing their on-screen avatar, visiting exhibits and playing games in the Imagine
Museum, and leveling up to unlock new exhibits. Each visit to the Imagine Museum has a 90-second time limit
so it does not take too much time away from learning activities. The better students perform in the learning
activities, the faster they get to the Imagine Museum, and the more frequently they get to visit. A rewards screen
displays the students’ museum level, which is automatically updated.
Imagine Museum exhibits include:
• Character Builder, where students create and customize their own
avatar the first time they visit the museum and unlock this exhibit.
• Mazel Cannon (unlocked the first time students visit the museum), where
students see how far they can shoot a friendly character from a cannon.
• Monkey Business (unlocked at Level 7), where students
customize a habitat for a monkey character.
• Smoothie Operator (unlocked at Level 13), where students make a
smoothie for the monkey.
• Mazel Mine (unlocked at Level 13), where students customize a
character, a cart, and a roller coaster, then go for a ride.
Imagine Language & Literacy provides other means of engagement
that are in alignment with the Universal Design for Learning
framework. For example:
• Lessons make explicit connections between what students are learning and their experiences, making
clear the practical relevance of the lessons.
• Lessons begin by presenting instructional goals and outlining the knowledge and skills students will be
expected to demonstrate.
• On-screen instructors model self-reflection and self-regulation when one’s initial strategy is unsuccessful.
• In Application Station, students engage in writing activities and monitor their own understanding by
comparing their responses to a rubric.
Imagine Museum Exhibits
29How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Principle 3: Offer adaptive, differentiated
instruction based on precise ongoing
assessment, and provide educators with
relevant data and actionable insights for
teaching and learning.
Adaptive, Differentiated Instruction
Research finds that classrooms are “becoming increasingly academically diverse,” with children manifesting
different abilities, interests, and optimal ways of learning (Subban, 2006, p. 938). In this context, research
supports differentiating instruction to address each student’s unique learning needs (Subban, 2006; Tomlinson,
2014; see also Ankrum et al., 2020). Experts in teaching and learning also conclude that “thoughtfully changing
instruction to support student learning during a lesson, known as adaptive teaching, is an important component
of effective literacy instruction” (Ankrum et al., 2020, p. 71).
Formative Assessment
Tomlinson (2014) notes that implementing differentiated instruction requires “persistent formative assessment”
to guide “both teacher and students toward essential goals” (pp. 4-5). A meta-analysis of multiple studies
demonstrates that formative assessment—the process of using ongoing assessment to inform instruction—
has a positive effect on student achievement, with teacher professional development and technology-based
formative assessment among the most effective methods of implementation (Kingston & Nash, 2011, pp. 33-35).
Research indicates that formative assessment is most effective for students when assessment data are used
to clarify learning goals to students; continuously monitor and diagnose student performance relative to these
learning goals; provide instructional feedback; make instructional decisions in response to students’ learning
progress; and involve students in their own assessment (National Research Council, 2012).
How Imagine Language & Literacy Provides Adaptive, Differentiated Instruction Supported by Ongoing
Formative Assessment
Imagine Language & Literacy differentiates instruction for each student in several ways:
• For the online instruction, each student is assigned developmentally appropriate starting points across
several literacy and language development curriculum domains, based on data from the program’s
Placement and Benchmarking system. For each domain, a student might work on skills that are at grade
level; more complex, higher-order literacy skills; or needed prerequisite skills typically taught in earlier grades.
• As noted previously, scaffolds such as first-language support, helpful illustrations, read-aloud texts, and a
built-in glossary are available as students need them.
• Also as described previously, formative feedback varies according to each student’s response—praise for
correct answers, and helpful hints and explanations for students who answer incorrectly.
• Extra practice is available for students who struggle with specific concepts and skills.
• Teachers can lead students in small-group or one-on-one lessons as needed, based on analysis provided
in the Imagine Language & Literacy Teacher Dashboard and the Action Areas Tool. Printable instructional
resources for these lessons are available online.
Principle 3: Offer adaptive, differentiated
instruction based on precise ongoing
assessment, and provide educators with
relevant data and actionable insights for
teaching and learning.
Adaptive, Differentiated Instruction
Research finds that classrooms are “becoming increasingly academically diverse,” with children manifesting
different abilities, interests, and optimal ways of learning (Subban, 2006, p. 938). In this context, research
supports differentiating instruction to address each student’s unique learning needs (Subban, 2006; Tomlinson,
2014; see also Ankrum et al., 2020). Experts in teaching and learning also conclude that “thoughtfully changing
instruction to support student learning during a lesson, known as adaptive teaching, is an important component
of effective literacy instruction” (Ankrum et al., 2020, p. 71).
Formative Assessment
Tomlinson (2014) notes that implementing differentiated instruction requires “persistent formative assessment”
to guide “both teacher and students toward essential goals” (pp. 4-5). A meta-analysis of multiple studies
demonstrates that formative assessment—the process of using ongoing assessment to inform instruction—
has a positive effect on student achievement, with teacher professional development and technology-based
formative assessment among the most effective methods of implementation (Kingston & Nash, 2011, pp. 33-35).
Research indicates that formative assessment is most effective for students when assessment data are used
to clarify learning goals to students; continuously monitor and diagnose student performance relative to these
learning goals; provide instructional feedback; make instructional decisions in response to students’ learning
progress; and involve students in their own assessment (National Research Council, 2012).
How Imagine Language & Literacy Provides Adaptive, Differentiated Instruction Supported by Ongoing
Formative Assessment
Imagine Language & Literacy differentiates instruction for each student in several ways:
• For the online instruction, each student is assigned developmentally appropriate starting points across
several literacy and language development curriculum domains, based on data from the program’s
Placement and Benchmarking system. For each domain, a student might work on skills that are at grade
level; more complex, higher-order literacy skills; or needed prerequisite skills typically taught in earlier grades.
• As noted previously, scaffolds such as first-language support, helpful illustrations, read-aloud texts, and a
built-in glossary are available as students need them.
• Also as described previously, formative feedback varies according to each student’s response—praise for
correct answers, and helpful hints and explanations for students who answer incorrectly.
• Extra practice is available for students who struggle with specific concepts and skills.
• Teachers can lead students in small-group or one-on-one lessons as needed, based on analysis provided
in the Imagine Language & Literacy Teacher Dashboard and the Action Areas Tool. Printable instructional
resources for these lessons are available online.
30How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
The Imagine Language & Literacy Placement and Benchmarking system and evaluation checkpoints
drive the differentiation of the online instruction. The Placement and Benchmarking system measures
student knowledge of print concepts, phonological awareness, phonics and word recognition, oral vocabulary,
grammar, and reading comprehension. This formative assessment system is adaptive. The initial subtest
delivered to students is selected according to grade level. Successful students then attempt subtests that
assess more challenging literacy skills. Unsuccessful students attempt skill subtests that assess prerequisite
skills. The adaptive nature of the assessment ensures that the online instruction and practice is at an
appropriate level.
As students progress through the program’s online lessons, built-in checkpoint assessments regularly evaluate
their performance data. The data collected from these assessments inform sequencing adjustments and are
used to determine whether and which instructional scaffolds should be provided to an individual student in
upcoming lessons.
The Imagine Language & Literacy interactive reporting suite provides teachers and students with tools
that present information on student progress and performance in simple, easy-to-digest formats. The
reports help teachers make more effective decisions about how to supplement student learning in the classroom
and how to best challenge students at the appropriate level.
• The Teacher Dashboard summarizes information on usage,
progress, groups, and growth.
• The Usage area shows usage patterns over time and tracks
against weekly and yearly usage goals. Teachers can quickly spot
patterns where specific students may not be getting sufficient use
of the program.
• The Progress area identifies which lessons students are working on
and how they are progressing in the skills being taught. Teachers
can view summary information for their whole class or drill down to
an individual student’s Skills Inventory.
• The Groups area presents a snapshot of recent activity and
performance of a class or assigned student group.
• The Growth area compares Benchmark and Lexile scores across
administrations of the Placement, Benchmark, and Reading Level
Assessments at the beginning, middle, and end of the school year
to illuminate changes in students’ reading proficiency.
The reporting suite also includes the following features:
• The Portfolio provides a collection of student learning artifacts.
Both audio recordings and constructed-writing responses can be
reviewed online or downloaded to share with students and parents.
• The Action Areas Tool identifies skill areas where one or more
students struggle, and indicates which students need additional
intervention with each skill. This information makes it easy to group
students for supplemental instruction. The tool also provides targeted
printable resources for small-group or one-on-one intervention.
Action Areas Tool
Teacher Dashboard
The Imagine Language & Literacy Placement and Benchmarking system and evaluation checkpoints
drive the differentiation of the online instruction. The Placement and Benchmarking system measures
student knowledge of print concepts, phonological awareness, phonics and word recognition, oral vocabulary,
grammar, and reading comprehension. This formative assessment system is adaptive. The initial subtest
delivered to students is selected according to grade level. Successful students then attempt subtests that
assess more challenging literacy skills. Unsuccessful students attempt skill subtests that assess prerequisite
skills. The adaptive nature of the assessment ensures that the online instruction and practice is at an
appropriate level.
As students progress through the program’s online lessons, built-in checkpoint assessments regularly evaluate
their performance data. The data collected from these assessments inform sequencing adjustments and are
used to determine whether and which instructional scaffolds should be provided to an individual student in
upcoming lessons.
The Imagine Language & Literacy interactive reporting suite provides teachers and students with tools
that present information on student progress and performance in simple, easy-to-digest formats. The
reports help teachers make more effective decisions about how to supplement student learning in the classroom
and how to best challenge students at the appropriate level.
• The Teacher Dashboard summarizes information on usage,
progress, groups, and growth.
• The Usage area shows usage patterns over time and tracks
against weekly and yearly usage goals. Teachers can quickly spot
patterns where specific students may not be getting sufficient use
of the program.
• The Progress area identifies which lessons students are working on
and how they are progressing in the skills being taught. Teachers
can view summary information for their whole class or drill down to
an individual student’s Skills Inventory.
• The Groups area presents a snapshot of recent activity and
performance of a class or assigned student group.
• The Growth area compares Benchmark and Lexile scores across
administrations of the Placement, Benchmark, and Reading Level
Assessments at the beginning, middle, and end of the school year
to illuminate changes in students’ reading proficiency.
The reporting suite also includes the following features:
• The Portfolio provides a collection of student learning artifacts.
Both audio recordings and constructed-writing responses can be
reviewed online or downloaded to share with students and parents.
• The Action Areas Tool identifies skill areas where one or more
students struggle, and indicates which students need additional
intervention with each skill. This information makes it easy to group
students for supplemental instruction. The tool also provides targeted
printable resources for small-group or one-on-one intervention.
Action Areas Tool
Teacher Dashboard
31How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
• The Activity Explorer and Playlist make it easy for teachers to provide students with the small-group or
individualized intervention most appropriate for them. Using the Activity Explorer, teachers find activities
by navigating through a user-friendly menu or by word or phrase searching. The Playlist enables teachers
to assign up to 12 activities to the whole class, a small group, or a single student. After students complete
their playlist of activities, they return to their individualized pathway.
Finally, Imagine Learning provides professional development on how to use data from the reporting
system to drive instruction. This is available via in-depth, in-person professional development sessions and
on-demand, self-paced online courses from Imagine Learning University.
• The Activity Explorer and Playlist make it easy for teachers to provide students with the small-group or
individualized intervention most appropriate for them. Using the Activity Explorer, teachers find activities
by navigating through a user-friendly menu or by word or phrase searching. The Playlist enables teachers
to assign up to 12 activities to the whole class, a small group, or a single student. After students complete
their playlist of activities, they return to their individualized pathway.
Finally, Imagine Learning provides professional development on how to use data from the reporting
system to drive instruction. This is available via in-depth, in-person professional development sessions and
on-demand, self-paced online courses from Imagine Learning University.
32How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Principle 4: Integrate strategic scaffolding and
formative feedback that makes instruction
effective for a diverse array of learners
Scaffolding in Instruction
The term scaffolding is often used to describe instructional supports made available as needed—including
prompts, questions as prompts, and modeling—designed to help students carry out tasks until they can do so
independently (Molenaar & Roda, 2011). Scaffolding in technology-based learning systems is considered to be
adaptive if it is based on diagnosis of the challenges preventing the student from completing the task, calibration
of the appropriate supports, and fading when the supports are no longer needed. Research has shown that
adaptive scaffolding benefits learning in a way that is tailored to the needs of each individual student (Molenaar
& Roda, 2011).
Formative Feedback
Formative feedback is “information communicated to the learner that is intended to modify his or her thinking
or behavior for the purpose of improving learning” (Shute, 2008, p. 154). Formative feedback helps close
the gap between what the learner understands about a task and what needs to be understood to complete
it successfully (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). In Hattie’s (1999) seminal research synthesis of factors impacting
achievement (which incorporated results from more than 500 meta-analyses), feedback was found to be one
of “the top 5 to 10 highest influences on achievement,” with the greatest effects where students were given
elaborated feedback “about a task and how to do it more effectively” (Hattie & Timperley, 2007, pp. 83-84, citing
Hattie, 1999).The National Research Council’s Committee on Defining Deeper Learning and 21st Century Skills
reviewed research on developing transferable knowledge and skills, and concluded that deeper learning for
applying what is learned to new situations requires “extensive practice, aided by explanatory feedback” (NRC,
2012, p. 82). More specifically, for instruction focused on problem-solving, the committee recommended using
“feedback techniques that highlight the processes of thinking rather than focusing exclusively on the products
of thinking” (NRC, 2012, p. 10). Van der Kleij et al. (2015) completed a meta-analysis of feedback in computer-
based learning environments, and found that elaborated, explanatory feedback had the greatest impact.
How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns with Research on Providing Scaffolding and Formative Feedback
Imagine Language & Literacy incorporates a wide array of scaffolding to support language and reading
comprehension, and uses data from built-in checkpoint formative assessments to determine which
types of instructional support should be provided in the upcoming lesson(s). Scaffolds include explicit
instruction, supporting illustrations, graphic organizers, repeated reading of texts, preteaching vocabulary
words, an interactive glossary, repeatable directions, visual and auditory prompts, strategic questions, formative
feedback (see more below), and the opportunity for extra practice as needed. As students become more
proficient, scaffolds are strategically withdrawn, and students are gradually transitioned to independence. The
program also provides digital books and guided reading experiences with audio scaffolding to support students
as needed as they progress through increasingly higher reading levels. These audio supports include options to
have a text read aloud by a narrator, text highlighting synchronized with the narration, to have individual words
read aloud, and to hear the names of objects shown in accompanying illustrations.
Principle 4: Integrate strategic scaffolding and
formative feedback that makes instruction
effective for a diverse array of learners
Scaffolding in Instruction
The term scaffolding is often used to describe instructional supports made available as needed—including
prompts, questions as prompts, and modeling—designed to help students carry out tasks until they can do so
independently (Molenaar & Roda, 2011). Scaffolding in technology-based learning systems is considered to be
adaptive if it is based on diagnosis of the challenges preventing the student from completing the task, calibration
of the appropriate supports, and fading when the supports are no longer needed. Research has shown that
adaptive scaffolding benefits learning in a way that is tailored to the needs of each individual student (Molenaar
& Roda, 2011).
Formative Feedback
Formative feedback is “information communicated to the learner that is intended to modify his or her thinking
or behavior for the purpose of improving learning” (Shute, 2008, p. 154). Formative feedback helps close
the gap between what the learner understands about a task and what needs to be understood to complete
it successfully (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). In Hattie’s (1999) seminal research synthesis of factors impacting
achievement (which incorporated results from more than 500 meta-analyses), feedback was found to be one
of “the top 5 to 10 highest influences on achievement,” with the greatest effects where students were given
elaborated feedback “about a task and how to do it more effectively” (Hattie & Timperley, 2007, pp. 83-84, citing
Hattie, 1999).The National Research Council’s Committee on Defining Deeper Learning and 21st Century Skills
reviewed research on developing transferable knowledge and skills, and concluded that deeper learning for
applying what is learned to new situations requires “extensive practice, aided by explanatory feedback” (NRC,
2012, p. 82). More specifically, for instruction focused on problem-solving, the committee recommended using
“feedback techniques that highlight the processes of thinking rather than focusing exclusively on the products
of thinking” (NRC, 2012, p. 10). Van der Kleij et al. (2015) completed a meta-analysis of feedback in computer-
based learning environments, and found that elaborated, explanatory feedback had the greatest impact.
How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns with Research on Providing Scaffolding and Formative Feedback
Imagine Language & Literacy incorporates a wide array of scaffolding to support language and reading
comprehension, and uses data from built-in checkpoint formative assessments to determine which
types of instructional support should be provided in the upcoming lesson(s). Scaffolds include explicit
instruction, supporting illustrations, graphic organizers, repeated reading of texts, preteaching vocabulary
words, an interactive glossary, repeatable directions, visual and auditory prompts, strategic questions, formative
feedback (see more below), and the opportunity for extra practice as needed. As students become more
proficient, scaffolds are strategically withdrawn, and students are gradually transitioned to independence. The
program also provides digital books and guided reading experiences with audio scaffolding to support students
as needed as they progress through increasingly higher reading levels. These audio supports include options to
have a text read aloud by a narrator, text highlighting synchronized with the narration, to have individual words
read aloud, and to hear the names of objects shown in accompanying illustrations.
33How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
The program also offers first-language support and translations in 15 languages (Spanish, Portuguese, Haitian
Creole, Vietnamese, Mandarin, Japanese, Arabic, French, Korean, Cantonese, Russian, Hmong, Marshallese,
Tagalog, and Somali). As students become more proficient in English, first-language support is strategically
faded, so students can gradually transition to independence.
Imagine Language & Literacy provides immediate, item-specific formative feedback, including additional
instruction and clues to help students understand the task at hand and know how to accomplish it. If students
complete the task incorrectly, the explanatory feedback reminds them of key concepts needed to succeed.
Typically, a student’s first incorrect response brings a hint prompt, while the second incorrect response brings a
more explicit explanation. Then, students are guided back to the reading to find the correct answer.
For example, in one reading comprehension activity, students read an article about an art museum and then
are asked what might be in an art museum: machines, paintings, or insects. The correct answer is paintings. If
a student selects the word insects, the program returns to the text and points out that the book shows a picture
of statues and the author mentions art. Students are coached to “use their brain” and think about the different
types of artwork. If the student is incorrect on the second try, the text is read aloud to the student, and they are
told that the answer is paintings because it’s a type of artwork.
This type of formative feedback encourages persistence, resilience, and a learning growth mindset.
The program also offers first-language support and translations in 15 languages (Spanish, Portuguese, Haitian
Creole, Vietnamese, Mandarin, Japanese, Arabic, French, Korean, Cantonese, Russian, Hmong, Marshallese,
Tagalog, and Somali). As students become more proficient in English, first-language support is strategically
faded, so students can gradually transition to independence.
Imagine Language & Literacy provides immediate, item-specific formative feedback, including additional
instruction and clues to help students understand the task at hand and know how to accomplish it. If students
complete the task incorrectly, the explanatory feedback reminds them of key concepts needed to succeed.
Typically, a student’s first incorrect response brings a hint prompt, while the second incorrect response brings a
more explicit explanation. Then, students are guided back to the reading to find the correct answer.
For example, in one reading comprehension activity, students read an article about an art museum and then
are asked what might be in an art museum: machines, paintings, or insects. The correct answer is paintings. If
a student selects the word insects, the program returns to the text and points out that the book shows a picture
of statues and the author mentions art. Students are coached to “use their brain” and think about the different
types of artwork. If the student is incorrect on the second try, the text is read aloud to the student, and they are
told that the answer is paintings because it’s a type of artwork.
This type of formative feedback encourages persistence, resilience, and a learning growth mindset.
34How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Principle 5: Integrate research-based guidance
to meet the needs of English learners.Recently, two national education research organizations—the What Works Clearinghouse (Baker et al., 2014) and
the National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM, 2017)—conducted reviews of research
on effective instruction for English learners. The What Works Clearinghouse offered several evidence-based
recommendations for teaching English learners in the elementary and middle school grades (Baker et al., 2014).
NASEM summarized “promising and effective practices” for English learners in grades PreK–12. (NASEM, 2017,
pp. 291-325). The following are recommendations for teaching English learners in the elementary grades, drawn
from both sources:
• “Screen for language and literacy challenges and monitor progress” (NASEM, 2017, pp. 298-299).
• “Provide explicit instruction in five areas of literacy”: phonological awareness, phonics and decoding, fluency,
vocabulary, and comprehension (NASEM, 2017, p. 293).
• “Provide small-group instructional intervention” that targets the students’ identified needs, based on
assessment data (Baker et al., 2014, pp. 6, 59-61).
• “Develop students’ academic language” (Baker et al., 2014, pp. 6, 13-30; NASEM, 2017, pp. 293-294).
• Provide “structured opportunities” to develop both oral and written English language proficiency (Baker et al.,
2014, pp. 6, 31-58).
• “Provide visual and verbal supports to make core content comprehensible” (NASEM, 2017, pp. 294-295; also
see Baker et al., 2014, pp. 32-36).
• “Encourage peer-assisted learning opportunities” (NASEM, 2017, pp. 295-296; also see Baker et al., 2014,
pp. 31-52).
How Imagine Language & Literacy Provides Research-Based Instruction that Meets the Needs of
English Learners
Imagine Language & Literacy screens for language and literacy challenges and monitors student progress.
Students begin by taking an embedded placement test that screens for reading problems and places students at the
appropriate starting point in the online curriculum. The program continues to monitor student progress throughout the
curriculum and provides teachers and parents with up-to-date information through comprehensive progress reports.
As described in the previous sections of this paper, Imagine Language & Literacy provides explicit instruction
in five critical areas of literacy: phonological awareness, phonics and decoding, oral language and vocabulary
development, fluency, and comprehension. Lessons activate students’ prior knowledge, establish a clear lesson
goal and objective at the start of each lesson, present instruction in small, manageable segments, provide clear
instruction with examples and non-examples, offer students opportunities for interactive practice, and provide
immediate, formative feedback.
A notable feature is the integrated, user-friendly recording studio, where students can record themselves as they
read digital books, compare their performance to a modeled oral reading, and rerecord their work if desired.
As described in the previous sections of this paper, Imagine Language & Literacy develops academic language
across a variety of instructional activities integrated with reading digital texts. Following the placement test,
students are automatically assigned to an appropriate vocabulary development level, with a heavy emphasis on
high-utility general academic words and some subject-specific words. Students are first introduced to the sounds
and spelling of a set of academic words. Next, they see visual representations of the words in a variety of contexts.
Principle 5: Integrate research-based guidance
to meet the needs of English learners.Recently, two national education research organizations—the What Works Clearinghouse (Baker et al., 2014) and
the National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM, 2017)—conducted reviews of research
on effective instruction for English learners. The What Works Clearinghouse offered several evidence-based
recommendations for teaching English learners in the elementary and middle school grades (Baker et al., 2014).
NASEM summarized “promising and effective practices” for English learners in grades PreK–12. (NASEM, 2017,
pp. 291-325). The following are recommendations for teaching English learners in the elementary grades, drawn
from both sources:
• “Screen for language and literacy challenges and monitor progress” (NASEM, 2017, pp. 298-299).
• “Provide explicit instruction in five areas of literacy”: phonological awareness, phonics and decoding, fluency,
vocabulary, and comprehension (NASEM, 2017, p. 293).
• “Provide small-group instructional intervention” that targets the students’ identified needs, based on
assessment data (Baker et al., 2014, pp. 6, 59-61).
• “Develop students’ academic language” (Baker et al., 2014, pp. 6, 13-30; NASEM, 2017, pp. 293-294).
• Provide “structured opportunities” to develop both oral and written English language proficiency (Baker et al.,
2014, pp. 6, 31-58).
• “Provide visual and verbal supports to make core content comprehensible” (NASEM, 2017, pp. 294-295; also
see Baker et al., 2014, pp. 32-36).
• “Encourage peer-assisted learning opportunities” (NASEM, 2017, pp. 295-296; also see Baker et al., 2014,
pp. 31-52).
How Imagine Language & Literacy Provides Research-Based Instruction that Meets the Needs of
English Learners
Imagine Language & Literacy screens for language and literacy challenges and monitors student progress.
Students begin by taking an embedded placement test that screens for reading problems and places students at the
appropriate starting point in the online curriculum. The program continues to monitor student progress throughout the
curriculum and provides teachers and parents with up-to-date information through comprehensive progress reports.
As described in the previous sections of this paper, Imagine Language & Literacy provides explicit instruction
in five critical areas of literacy: phonological awareness, phonics and decoding, oral language and vocabulary
development, fluency, and comprehension. Lessons activate students’ prior knowledge, establish a clear lesson
goal and objective at the start of each lesson, present instruction in small, manageable segments, provide clear
instruction with examples and non-examples, offer students opportunities for interactive practice, and provide
immediate, formative feedback.
A notable feature is the integrated, user-friendly recording studio, where students can record themselves as they
read digital books, compare their performance to a modeled oral reading, and rerecord their work if desired.
As described in the previous sections of this paper, Imagine Language & Literacy develops academic language
across a variety of instructional activities integrated with reading digital texts. Following the placement test,
students are automatically assigned to an appropriate vocabulary development level, with a heavy emphasis on
high-utility general academic words and some subject-specific words. Students are first introduced to the sounds
and spelling of a set of academic words. Next, they see visual representations of the words in a variety of contexts.
35How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Then they use the words to create scenes. After multiple experiences with the words, students demonstrate their
mastery by using them to complete cloze sentences. The targeted words are also featured in the corresponding
digital books, many of which focus on science or social studies topics.
Imagine Language & Literacy provides structured opportunities to develop oral and written English
language proficiency. As described in the previous sections of this paper, the program provides direct instruction
and practice designed to build students’ semantic knowledge and skill, vocabulary, morphological knowledge,
syntactic competence, and ability to apply pragmatics. Explicit instruction is provided on various text genres, their
underlying text structures, and how to use this knowledge as an aid to comprehension.
Imagine Language & Literacy provides visual and verbal scaffolds to help English learners develop
proficiency in their new language. For example:
• The introduction to books and critical vocabulary are taught in ELL students’ home language.
• ELL students working in English can access first-language support in 15 languages, which translates
literacy skills instruction, targeted vocabulary, and procedural directions. As students become more
proficient in English, first-language support is strategically withdrawn, and students are gradually
transitioned to independence.
• In Discover Similar Sounds, students recognize initial sounds in English that are also used in their first
language. Fun graphics depict images of words that begin with the same sound in both the first language and
in English. For example, the phoneme /l/ is introduced with the word lemon in English and the word león in
Spanish. Students are given opportunities to practice recognizing sounds that exist in both languages. Similar
sounds are identified in all languages supported by Imagine Language & Literacy, and appropriate examples for
each language are given. Since not all languages share the same common sounds with English, the activity is
adapted for the specific first language. Directions for this activity are provided in the student’s first language.
• The program also addresses English sounds that are not found in a student’s first language (e.g., the /r/ sound
in English, which is not found in Korean). Students receive instruction in their first language, and then the
English-only sound is pronounced. Next, the program models several words beginning with the new sound.
Then, a video recording of a mouth making the new sound is shown, so students can see how the lips and
tongue move to produce the sound. After this instruction, students practice finding words that begin with the
new sound.
• A series of activities builds on language commonalities to address rhyme in both languages. First, students
learn about rhyme in their first language to build background knowledge. Then they are taught rhyming sounds
in English, again with modeling, visuals, and interactive practice.
• Other scaffolds are provided to both English learners and native speakers, including illustrations, front-
loading of vocabulary instruction in preparation for reading digital texts, audio support, an interactive glossary,
instructional hints and feedback, strategic questions, and extra practice as needed.
Imagine Language & Literacy offers opportunities for small-group instruction and peer-assisted learning.
Teachers can use the Action Areas Tool to view which skills require remediation and identify which students are struggling
in similar areas so they can then be assigned to small-group interventions. Then teachers can access skill-specific
printable instructional resources, including supplemental classroom activities, reteaching lesson plans, activity sheets,
flash cards, and graphic organizers that can be used during the small-group sessions. These sessions offer opportunities
for students to collaborate and help one another as needed. Teachers can distribute printouts of digital books or display
them using a projection device, and then organize group discussions to help students better comprehend the text. Such
classroom discussions enable emerging English learners to learn from their more advanced peers.
Then they use the words to create scenes. After multiple experiences with the words, students demonstrate their
mastery by using them to complete cloze sentences. The targeted words are also featured in the corresponding
digital books, many of which focus on science or social studies topics.
Imagine Language & Literacy provides structured opportunities to develop oral and written English
language proficiency. As described in the previous sections of this paper, the program provides direct instruction
and practice designed to build students’ semantic knowledge and skill, vocabulary, morphological knowledge,
syntactic competence, and ability to apply pragmatics. Explicit instruction is provided on various text genres, their
underlying text structures, and how to use this knowledge as an aid to comprehension.
Imagine Language & Literacy provides visual and verbal scaffolds to help English learners develop
proficiency in their new language. For example:
• The introduction to books and critical vocabulary are taught in ELL students’ home language.
• ELL students working in English can access first-language support in 15 languages, which translates
literacy skills instruction, targeted vocabulary, and procedural directions. As students become more
proficient in English, first-language support is strategically withdrawn, and students are gradually
transitioned to independence.
• In Discover Similar Sounds, students recognize initial sounds in English that are also used in their first
language. Fun graphics depict images of words that begin with the same sound in both the first language and
in English. For example, the phoneme /l/ is introduced with the word lemon in English and the word león in
Spanish. Students are given opportunities to practice recognizing sounds that exist in both languages. Similar
sounds are identified in all languages supported by Imagine Language & Literacy, and appropriate examples for
each language are given. Since not all languages share the same common sounds with English, the activity is
adapted for the specific first language. Directions for this activity are provided in the student’s first language.
• The program also addresses English sounds that are not found in a student’s first language (e.g., the /r/ sound
in English, which is not found in Korean). Students receive instruction in their first language, and then the
English-only sound is pronounced. Next, the program models several words beginning with the new sound.
Then, a video recording of a mouth making the new sound is shown, so students can see how the lips and
tongue move to produce the sound. After this instruction, students practice finding words that begin with the
new sound.
• A series of activities builds on language commonalities to address rhyme in both languages. First, students
learn about rhyme in their first language to build background knowledge. Then they are taught rhyming sounds
in English, again with modeling, visuals, and interactive practice.
• Other scaffolds are provided to both English learners and native speakers, including illustrations, front-
loading of vocabulary instruction in preparation for reading digital texts, audio support, an interactive glossary,
instructional hints and feedback, strategic questions, and extra practice as needed.
Imagine Language & Literacy offers opportunities for small-group instruction and peer-assisted learning.
Teachers can use the Action Areas Tool to view which skills require remediation and identify which students are struggling
in similar areas so they can then be assigned to small-group interventions. Then teachers can access skill-specific
printable instructional resources, including supplemental classroom activities, reteaching lesson plans, activity sheets,
flash cards, and graphic organizers that can be used during the small-group sessions. These sessions offer opportunities
for students to collaborate and help one another as needed. Teachers can distribute printouts of digital books or display
them using a projection device, and then organize group discussions to help students better comprehend the text. Such
classroom discussions enable emerging English learners to learn from their more advanced peers.
36How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
As described in the previous sections of this paper, Imagine Language & Literacy also provides simulated peer
modeling on the computer screen, featuring animated characters and videos of peer-aged students offering think-
aloud support for the development of vocabulary and comprehension strategies. The program also simulates partner
reading, with the computer serving the role of the strong reader; then the student gets a chance to read aloud and
become a stronger reader.
ConclusionImagine Language & Literacy reflects well-accepted, research-based best practices to accelerate reading
and language proficiency for students in grades PreK–6. Students receive explicit instruction that deepens
and accelerates their foundational reading skills, oral language development, and reading fluency and
comprehension. They develop and learn to apply phonics-based word recognition skills, semantics, vocabulary,
morphological knowledge, syntactical rules, and pragmatics. They develop fluency through exposure to models
of fluent oral reading and a variety of oral reading fluency practice opportunities. Through a wide range of
text genres, including both literary and informational texts, students build background knowledge and learn to
apply knowledge of different text structures, comprehension strategies, and inferential reasoning skills to hone
their ability to read with comprehension. The program capitalizes on multisensory, multimedia instruction, a
game-based motivation system, and principles of Universal Design for Learning to engage learners and make
learning fun and personally relevant for all students. By providing informative feedback and incorporating
strategic scaffolding, learning is made more effective for a diverse array of learners, including English language
learners, and the experience encourages persistence and a growth mindset. Adaptive instruction based on
precise ongoing assessment meets each student’s specific learning needs, and easy-to-interpret reports provide
actionable insights that help teachers further differentiate instruction.
As described in the previous sections of this paper, Imagine Language & Literacy also provides simulated peer
modeling on the computer screen, featuring animated characters and videos of peer-aged students offering think-
aloud support for the development of vocabulary and comprehension strategies. The program also simulates partner
reading, with the computer serving the role of the strong reader; then the student gets a chance to read aloud and
become a stronger reader.
ConclusionImagine Language & Literacy reflects well-accepted, research-based best practices to accelerate reading
and language proficiency for students in grades PreK–6. Students receive explicit instruction that deepens
and accelerates their foundational reading skills, oral language development, and reading fluency and
comprehension. They develop and learn to apply phonics-based word recognition skills, semantics, vocabulary,
morphological knowledge, syntactical rules, and pragmatics. They develop fluency through exposure to models
of fluent oral reading and a variety of oral reading fluency practice opportunities. Through a wide range of
text genres, including both literary and informational texts, students build background knowledge and learn to
apply knowledge of different text structures, comprehension strategies, and inferential reasoning skills to hone
their ability to read with comprehension. The program capitalizes on multisensory, multimedia instruction, a
game-based motivation system, and principles of Universal Design for Learning to engage learners and make
learning fun and personally relevant for all students. By providing informative feedback and incorporating
strategic scaffolding, learning is made more effective for a diverse array of learners, including English language
learners, and the experience encourages persistence and a growth mindset. Adaptive instruction based on
precise ongoing assessment meets each student’s specific learning needs, and easy-to-interpret reports provide
actionable insights that help teachers further differentiate instruction.
37How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
References
Introduction
Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the Reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert.
Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100618772271
Catts, H.W., Hogan, T.P., & Adlof, S.M. (2005). Developing changes in reading and reading disabilities. In
H.W. Catts & A.G. Kamhi (Eds.), The connections between language and reading disabilities (pp. 23-36).
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Chetty, R., Friedman, J.N., Hilger, N., Saez, E., Schanzenbach, D.W., & Yagan, D. (2010). How Does Your
Kindergarten Classroom Affect Your Earnings? Evidence from Project Star. NBER Working Paper No. 16381.
Feister, L. (2013). Early warning confirmed: A research update on third-grade reading. Annie E. Casey
Foundation. https://www.aecf.org/resources/early-warning-confirmed/
Foorman, B., Herrera, S., Petscher, Y., Mitchell A., & Truckenmiller, A. (2015, May). The structure of oral language
and reading and their relation to comprehension in kindergarten through grade 2. Reading and Writing: An
Interdisciplinary Journal, 28(5): 655–681. doi:10.1007/s11145-015-9544-5
Foorman, B.R., Koon, S., Petscher, Y., Mitchell, A., & Truckenmiller, A. (2016). Examining General and Specific
Factors in the Dimensionality of Oral Language and Reading in 4th-10th Grades. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 107(3), 884–899. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000026
Foorman, B.R., Lee, L., & Smith, K. (2020) Implementing Evidence-Based Reading Practices in K–3
Classrooms. Education and Treatment of Children, 43, 49–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43494-020-00005-3
Gough, P., & Tunmer, W. (1986). Decoding, reading and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7, 6–10.
International Literacy Association (2015, August 19). The Benefits of Literacy. https://www.literacyworldwide.org/
docs/default-source/resource-documents/ila-take-action-benefits.pdf?sfvrsn=6cada38e_6
Lesnick, J., Goerge, R., Smithgall, C., & Gwynne, J. (2010). Reading on third grade level in third grade: How is it
related to high school performance and college enrollment? Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago Press.
https://www.chapinhall.org/wp-content/uploads/Reading_on_Grade_Level_111710.pdf
Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., & Bakia, M. (2013). The effectiveness of online and blended learning: A
meta-analysis of the empirical literature. Teachers College Record, 115(3). Special Section, pp. 1–47.
National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP) (2019). Interpreting NAEP Reading Results. https://nces.
ed.gov/nationsreportcard/reading/interpret_results.aspx.
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (2000). Report of the National Reading
Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on
reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00-4754).
U.S. Government Printing Office.
Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence,
theory, and practice. In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook for research in early literacy (pp.
97–110). Guilford Press.
Snow, C. (2002). Toward an R&D program in reading comprehension. RAND Corporation. http://www. rand.org/
pubs/monograph_reports/2005/MR1465.pdf
Watts, T.W. (2020, April-June). Academic Achievement and Economic Attainment: Re-examining Associations
Between Test Scores and Long-Run Earnings. AERA Open, 6(2), 1–16. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/
pdf/10.1177/2332858420928985
References
Introduction
Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the Reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert.
Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100618772271
Catts, H.W., Hogan, T.P., & Adlof, S.M. (2005). Developing changes in reading and reading disabilities. In
H.W. Catts & A.G. Kamhi (Eds.), The connections between language and reading disabilities (pp. 23-36).
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Chetty, R., Friedman, J.N., Hilger, N., Saez, E., Schanzenbach, D.W., & Yagan, D. (2010). How Does Your
Kindergarten Classroom Affect Your Earnings? Evidence from Project Star. NBER Working Paper No. 16381.
Feister, L. (2013). Early warning confirmed: A research update on third-grade reading. Annie E. Casey
Foundation. https://www.aecf.org/resources/early-warning-confirmed/
Foorman, B., Herrera, S., Petscher, Y., Mitchell A., & Truckenmiller, A. (2015, May). The structure of oral language
and reading and their relation to comprehension in kindergarten through grade 2. Reading and Writing: An
Interdisciplinary Journal, 28(5): 655–681. doi:10.1007/s11145-015-9544-5
Foorman, B.R., Koon, S., Petscher, Y., Mitchell, A., & Truckenmiller, A. (2016). Examining General and Specific
Factors in the Dimensionality of Oral Language and Reading in 4th-10th Grades. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 107(3), 884–899. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000026
Foorman, B.R., Lee, L., & Smith, K. (2020) Implementing Evidence-Based Reading Practices in K–3
Classrooms. Education and Treatment of Children, 43, 49–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43494-020-00005-3
Gough, P., & Tunmer, W. (1986). Decoding, reading and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7, 6–10.
International Literacy Association (2015, August 19). The Benefits of Literacy. https://www.literacyworldwide.org/
docs/default-source/resource-documents/ila-take-action-benefits.pdf?sfvrsn=6cada38e_6
Lesnick, J., Goerge, R., Smithgall, C., & Gwynne, J. (2010). Reading on third grade level in third grade: How is it
related to high school performance and college enrollment? Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago Press.
https://www.chapinhall.org/wp-content/uploads/Reading_on_Grade_Level_111710.pdf
Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., & Bakia, M. (2013). The effectiveness of online and blended learning: A
meta-analysis of the empirical literature. Teachers College Record, 115(3). Special Section, pp. 1–47.
National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP) (2019). Interpreting NAEP Reading Results. https://nces.
ed.gov/nationsreportcard/reading/interpret_results.aspx.
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (2000). Report of the National Reading
Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on
reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00-4754).
U.S. Government Printing Office.
Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence,
theory, and practice. In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook for research in early literacy (pp.
97–110). Guilford Press.
Snow, C. (2002). Toward an R&D program in reading comprehension. RAND Corporation. http://www. rand.org/
pubs/monograph_reports/2005/MR1465.pdf
Watts, T.W. (2020, April-June). Academic Achievement and Economic Attainment: Re-examining Associations
Between Test Scores and Long-Run Earnings. AERA Open, 6(2), 1–16. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/
pdf/10.1177/2332858420928985
38How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Phonological Awareness
Eccles, R., van der Linde, J., le Roux, M., Holloway, J., MacCutcheon, D., Ljung, R., & Swanepoel, D. (2020).
Effect of music instruction on phonological awareness and early literacy skills of five- to seven-year-old
children. Early Child Development and Care. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2020.1803852
Foorman, B., Beyler, N., Borradaile, K., Coyne, M., Denton, C. A., Dimino, J., Furgeson, J., Hayes, L., Henke,
J., Justice, L., Keating, B., Lewis, W., Sattar, S., Streke, A., Wagner, R., & Wissel, S. (2016). Foundational
skills to support reading for understanding in kindergarten through 3rd grade (NCEE 2016-4008). National
Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), Institute of Education Sciences, U.S.
Department of Education. http://whatworks.ed.gov
Gillon, G. T. (2018). Phonological awareness: from research to practice. The Guilford Press.
Lonigan, C., Burgess, S., & Schatschneider, C. (2018). Examining the Simple View of Reading with elementary
school children: Still simple after all these years. Remedial and Special Education, 39(5), 260-273. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1177/0741932518764833
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (2000). Report of the National Reading
Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on
reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00-4754).
U.S. Government Printing Office.
Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence,
theory, and practice. In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook for research in early literacy (pp.
97–110). Guilford Press.
Schuele, C. M., & Boudreau, D. (2008). Phonological Awareness Intervention: Beyond the Basics. Language,
Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 39(1), 3-20. doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2008/002)
Phonics and Decoding
Adams, M.J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. MIT Press.
Combs, B. (2012). Assessing and addressing literacy needs: Cases and instructional strategies. Sage
Publications. https://us.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/40373_3.pdf
Copeland, S.R., & Keefe, E.B. (2017). Teaching reading and literacy skills to students with intellectual disability.
In M.L. Wehmeyer & K.A. Shogren (Eds.), Handbook of Research-Based Practices for Educating Students
with Intellectual Disability (pp. 636-687). Routledge.
Foorman, B., Beyler, N., Borradaile, K., Coyne, M., Denton, C. A., Dimino, J., Furgeson, J., Hayes, L., Henke,
J., Justice, L., Keating, B., Lewis, W., Sattar, S., Streke, A., Wagner, R., & Wissel, S. (2016). Foundational
skills to support reading for understanding in kindergarten through 3rd grade (NCEE 2016-4008). National
Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), Institute of Education Sciences, U.S.
Department of Education. http://whatworks.ed.gov
Maria, A., & Rego, P. (2006). The Alphabetic Principle, Phonics and Spelling: Teaching Students the Code. In J.S.
Mesmer, H.A.E., & Griffith, P.L. (2005). Everybody's selling it—but just what is explicit, systematic phonics
instruction? The Reading Teacher, 59(4), 366-376. https://doi.org/10.1598/RT.59.4.6
National Institute of Child Health & Human Development (NICHHD). (2000). National reading panel: Teaching
children to read: Reports of the subgroups (NIH pub. No. 00–4754). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Health & Human Services.
Phonological Awareness
Eccles, R., van der Linde, J., le Roux, M., Holloway, J., MacCutcheon, D., Ljung, R., & Swanepoel, D. (2020).
Effect of music instruction on phonological awareness and early literacy skills of five- to seven-year-old
children. Early Child Development and Care. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2020.1803852
Foorman, B., Beyler, N., Borradaile, K., Coyne, M., Denton, C. A., Dimino, J., Furgeson, J., Hayes, L., Henke,
J., Justice, L., Keating, B., Lewis, W., Sattar, S., Streke, A., Wagner, R., & Wissel, S. (2016). Foundational
skills to support reading for understanding in kindergarten through 3rd grade (NCEE 2016-4008). National
Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), Institute of Education Sciences, U.S.
Department of Education. http://whatworks.ed.gov
Gillon, G. T. (2018). Phonological awareness: from research to practice. The Guilford Press.
Lonigan, C., Burgess, S., & Schatschneider, C. (2018). Examining the Simple View of Reading with elementary
school children: Still simple after all these years. Remedial and Special Education, 39(5), 260-273. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1177/0741932518764833
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (2000). Report of the National Reading
Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on
reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00-4754).
U.S. Government Printing Office.
Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence,
theory, and practice. In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook for research in early literacy (pp.
97–110). Guilford Press.
Schuele, C. M., & Boudreau, D. (2008). Phonological Awareness Intervention: Beyond the Basics. Language,
Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 39(1), 3-20. doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2008/002)
Phonics and Decoding
Adams, M.J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. MIT Press.
Combs, B. (2012). Assessing and addressing literacy needs: Cases and instructional strategies. Sage
Publications. https://us.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/40373_3.pdf
Copeland, S.R., & Keefe, E.B. (2017). Teaching reading and literacy skills to students with intellectual disability.
In M.L. Wehmeyer & K.A. Shogren (Eds.), Handbook of Research-Based Practices for Educating Students
with Intellectual Disability (pp. 636-687). Routledge.
Foorman, B., Beyler, N., Borradaile, K., Coyne, M., Denton, C. A., Dimino, J., Furgeson, J., Hayes, L., Henke,
J., Justice, L., Keating, B., Lewis, W., Sattar, S., Streke, A., Wagner, R., & Wissel, S. (2016). Foundational
skills to support reading for understanding in kindergarten through 3rd grade (NCEE 2016-4008). National
Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), Institute of Education Sciences, U.S.
Department of Education. http://whatworks.ed.gov
Maria, A., & Rego, P. (2006). The Alphabetic Principle, Phonics and Spelling: Teaching Students the Code. In J.S.
Mesmer, H.A.E., & Griffith, P.L. (2005). Everybody's selling it—but just what is explicit, systematic phonics
instruction? The Reading Teacher, 59(4), 366-376. https://doi.org/10.1598/RT.59.4.6
National Institute of Child Health & Human Development (NICHHD). (2000). National reading panel: Teaching
children to read: Reports of the subgroups (NIH pub. No. 00–4754). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Health & Human Services.
39How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Schumm (Ed.), Reading assessment and instruction for all learners: A comprehensive guide for classroom and
resource setting (pp. 118-163). Guilford.
Weiser, B., & Mathes, P. (2011). Using encoding instruction to improve the reading and spelling performances
of elementary students at risk for literacy difficulties. Review of Educational Research, 81(2), 170-200.
doi:10.3102/0034654310396719
Oral Language and Vocabulary Development
Archer, A., & Hughes, C. (2011). Explicit instruction: Effective and efficient teaching. Guilford Publications.
Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G., & Kucan, L. (2013). Bringing Words to Life: Robust Vocabulary Instruction (2nd ed.).
Guilford Press.
Catts, H.W., Hogan, T.P., & Adlof, S.M. (2005). Developing changes in reading and reading disabilities. In
H.W. Catts & A.G. Kamhi (Eds), The connections between language and reading disabilities (pp. 23-36).
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Coxhead, A. (2000, Summer). A New Academic Word List. TESOL Quarterly, 34(2), 213-238. https://www.jstor.
org/stable/3587951
Duncan, L. (2018). Language and reading: The role of morpheme and phoneme awareness. Current
Developmental Disorders Reports, 5(4), 226-234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40474-018-0153-2
Durand, V.N., Loe, I.M., Yeatman, J.D., & Feldman, H.M. (2013). Effects of early language, speech, and
cognition on later reading: A mediation analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/
fpsyg.2013.00586
Gravani, E., & Meyer, J. (n.d.). Teaching syntax: Supporting Language, reading fluency & reading
comprehension. Lecture presented at ASHA Convention in Louisiana, New Orleans.
Graves, M.F. (2016). The vocabulary book: Learning and instruction (2nd ed.). Teachers College Press.
Marzano, R. J., & Pickering, D. J. (2005). Building Academic Vocabulary Teacher's Manual. Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (2000). Report of the National Reading
Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on
reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00-4754).
U.S. Government Printing Office.
Owens, R.E. (2020). Language development: An introduction (10th ed.). Pearson Education. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1017/S0305000909009453.
Pearson, B.Z., & De Villiers, P.A. (2005). Discourse, narrative, and pragmatic development. In K. Brown & E.
Lieven (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language and linguistics (2nd ed.) (pp. 686-693). Elsevier.
Petscher, Y., Cabell, S.Q., Catts, H.W., Compton, D.L., Foorman, B.R., Hart, S. A., Lonigan, C.J., Phillips, B.M.,
Schatschneider, C., Steacy, L., Terry, N.P., & Wagner, R.K. (2020). How the science of reading informs 21st
century education. Reading Research Quarterly, 55(1), 5267-5282. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.352.
Ricketts, J., Davies, R., Masterson, J., Stuart, M., & Duff, F. (2016). Evidence for semantic involvement
in regular and exception word reading in emergent readers of English. Journal of Experimental Child
Psychology, 150, 330-345.
Wagner, R.K., & Meros, D. (2010) Vocabulary and reading comprehension: Direct, indirect, and reciprocal
influences, Focus on Exceptional Children, 43, 1-12.
Schumm (Ed.), Reading assessment and instruction for all learners: A comprehensive guide for classroom and
resource setting (pp. 118-163). Guilford.
Weiser, B., & Mathes, P. (2011). Using encoding instruction to improve the reading and spelling performances
of elementary students at risk for literacy difficulties. Review of Educational Research, 81(2), 170-200.
doi:10.3102/0034654310396719
Oral Language and Vocabulary Development
Archer, A., & Hughes, C. (2011). Explicit instruction: Effective and efficient teaching. Guilford Publications.
Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G., & Kucan, L. (2013). Bringing Words to Life: Robust Vocabulary Instruction (2nd ed.).
Guilford Press.
Catts, H.W., Hogan, T.P., & Adlof, S.M. (2005). Developing changes in reading and reading disabilities. In
H.W. Catts & A.G. Kamhi (Eds), The connections between language and reading disabilities (pp. 23-36).
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Coxhead, A. (2000, Summer). A New Academic Word List. TESOL Quarterly, 34(2), 213-238. https://www.jstor.
org/stable/3587951
Duncan, L. (2018). Language and reading: The role of morpheme and phoneme awareness. Current
Developmental Disorders Reports, 5(4), 226-234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40474-018-0153-2
Durand, V.N., Loe, I.M., Yeatman, J.D., & Feldman, H.M. (2013). Effects of early language, speech, and
cognition on later reading: A mediation analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/
fpsyg.2013.00586
Gravani, E., & Meyer, J. (n.d.). Teaching syntax: Supporting Language, reading fluency & reading
comprehension. Lecture presented at ASHA Convention in Louisiana, New Orleans.
Graves, M.F. (2016). The vocabulary book: Learning and instruction (2nd ed.). Teachers College Press.
Marzano, R. J., & Pickering, D. J. (2005). Building Academic Vocabulary Teacher's Manual. Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (2000). Report of the National Reading
Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on
reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00-4754).
U.S. Government Printing Office.
Owens, R.E. (2020). Language development: An introduction (10th ed.). Pearson Education. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1017/S0305000909009453.
Pearson, B.Z., & De Villiers, P.A. (2005). Discourse, narrative, and pragmatic development. In K. Brown & E.
Lieven (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language and linguistics (2nd ed.) (pp. 686-693). Elsevier.
Petscher, Y., Cabell, S.Q., Catts, H.W., Compton, D.L., Foorman, B.R., Hart, S. A., Lonigan, C.J., Phillips, B.M.,
Schatschneider, C., Steacy, L., Terry, N.P., & Wagner, R.K. (2020). How the science of reading informs 21st
century education. Reading Research Quarterly, 55(1), 5267-5282. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.352.
Ricketts, J., Davies, R., Masterson, J., Stuart, M., & Duff, F. (2016). Evidence for semantic involvement
in regular and exception word reading in emergent readers of English. Journal of Experimental Child
Psychology, 150, 330-345.
Wagner, R.K., & Meros, D. (2010) Vocabulary and reading comprehension: Direct, indirect, and reciprocal
influences, Focus on Exceptional Children, 43, 1-12.
40How Imagine Language & Literacy Aligns With Research on Effective Literacy Instruction
Fluency
Hudson, R. F., Lane, H.B., & Pullen, P.C. (2005). Reading fluency assessment and instruction: What, why, and
how? The Reading Teacher, 58(8), 702-714.
Marshall, J.C., & Campbell, Y.C. (2006). Practice makes permanent: Working toward fluency. In J.S. Schumm
(Ed.), Reading assessment and instruction for all learners: A comprehensive guide for classroom and
resource setting (pp. 190-121). Guilford.
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (2000). Report of the National Reading
Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on
reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00-4754).
U.S. Government Printing Office.
Rasinski, T., Samuels, S.J., Hiebert, E., Petscher, Y., & Feller, K. (2011). The Relationship Between a Silent
Reading Fluency Instructional Protocol on Students' Reading Comprehension and Achievement in an Urban
School Setting. Reading psychology, 32(1), 75–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702710903346873.
Reading Comprehension
Brown, R., & Dewitz, P. (2014). Building comprehension in every classroom: Instruction with literature,
informational texts, and basal programs. The Guilford Press.
Currie, N., & Cain, K. (2015). Children’s inference generation: The role of vocabulary and working memory.
Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 137, 57-75.
Duke, N., Pearson, D., Strachan, S., & Billman, A. (2011). Essential elements of fostering and teaching reading
comprehension. In A.E. Farstrup & S. J. Samuels (Eds.), What Research Has to Say About Reading
Instruction (4th ed.) (pp. 51-93). International Reading Association.
Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2018). Rigorous reading: 5 access points for comprehending complex texts. Corwin.
Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Lapp, D. (2011). What the research says about intentional instruction. In A. E. Farstrup
& S. J. Samuels (Eds.), What Research Has to Say About Reading Instruction (4th ed.) (pp. 359-378).
International Reading Association.
Mostow, J., & Chen, W. (2009). Generating instruction automatically for the reading strategy of self-questioning.
In Proceedings of the Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education, pp. 465-472.
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (2000). Report of the National Reading
Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on
reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00-4754).
U.S. Government Printing Office.
National Research Council (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school (expanded ed.).
Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning and Committee on Learning Research and
Educational Practice. J.D. Bransford, A. Brown, & R.R. Cocking (Eds.). Commission on Behavioral and
Social Sciences and Education. National Academy Press.
Scarborough, H.S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence,
theory, and practice. In S.B. Neuman & D.K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 97-
110). Guilford Press.
Fluency
Hudson, R. F., Lane, H.B., & Pullen, P.C. (2005). Reading fluency assessment and instruction: What, why, and
how? The Reading Teacher, 58(8), 702-714.
Marshall, J.C., & Campbell, Y.C. (2006). Practice makes permanent: Working toward fluency. In J.S. Schumm
(Ed.), Reading assessment and instruction for all learners: A comprehensive guide for classroom and
resource setting (pp. 190-121). Guilford.
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (2000). Report of the National Reading
Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on
reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00-4754).
U.S. Government Printing Office.
Rasinski, T., Samuels, S.J., Hiebert, E., Petscher, Y., & Feller, K. (2011). The Relationship Between a Silent
Reading Fluency Instructional Protocol on Students' Reading Comprehension and Achievement in an Urban
School Setting. Reading psychology, 32(1), 75–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/02702710903346873.
Reading Comprehension
Brown, R., & Dewitz, P. (2014). Building comprehension in every classroom: Instruction with literature,
informational texts, and basal programs. The Guilford Press.
Currie, N., & Cain, K. (2015). Children’s inference generation: The role of vocabulary and working memory.
Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 137, 57-75.
Duke, N., Pearson, D., Strachan, S., & Billman, A. (2011). Essential elements of fostering and teaching reading
comprehension. In A.E. Farstrup & S. J. Samuels (Eds.), What Research Has to Say About Reading
Instruction (4th ed.) (pp. 51-93). International Reading Association.
Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2018). Rigorous reading: 5 access points for comprehending complex texts. Corwin.
Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Lapp, D. (2011). What the research says about intentional instruction. In A. E. Farstrup
& S. J. Samuels (Eds.), What Research Has to Say About Reading Instruction (4th ed.) (pp. 359-378).
International Reading Association.
Mostow, J., & Chen, W. (2009). Generating instruction automatically for the reading strategy of self-questioning.
In Proceedings of the Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education, pp. 465-472.
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (2000). Report of the National Reading
Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on
reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00-4754).
U.S. Government Printing Office.
National Research Council (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school (expanded ed.).
Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning and Committee on Learning Research and
Educational Practice. J.D. Bransford, A. Brown, & R.R. Cocking (Eds.). Commission on Behavioral and
Social Sciences and Education. National Academy Press.
Scarborough, H.S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence,
theory, and practice. In S.B. Neuman & D.K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 97-
110). Guilford Press.